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Episode: #2217 - Brian Cox

Author: Joe Rogan
Duration: 03:01:34

Episode Shownotes

Professor Brian Cox is an English physicist and Professor of Particle Physics in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester in the UK, author of many books, and broadcast personality. Catch him live in 2025 on his "Horizons—A 21st Century Space Odyssey" tour. Briancoxlive.co.uk Learn more

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Full Transcript

00:00:03 Speaker_07
The Joe Rogan experience.

00:00:06 Speaker_06
Join my day Joe Rogan podcast by night or day. Brian Cox. Good to see you, sir. Good to see you again. How's things in the world of the discovery of the universe?

00:00:19 Speaker_03
Exciting, I would say. I've been doing some work on black holes recently, which I hadn't started last time I saw you, actually. So I got interested in it. And the amount of the progress that's been made in trying to understand how they work

00:00:36 Speaker_03
And a question that was posed by Stephen Hawking a long time ago, really 1970s, early 1980s, which is what happens to stuff that falls in? The simplest question you could possibly ask.

00:00:48 Speaker_03
There's progress being made on that now, which I think is profound and exciting.

00:00:54 Speaker_06
How is the progress being made? How do we study a black hole?

00:00:59 Speaker_03
I mean, it's mainly theoretical, although we have now got photographs of them. So we have two photographs, which are radio telescope photographs. Right. One of the one in the center of our galaxy, which is a little one. It's called Sagittarius A star.

00:01:15 Speaker_03
It's a little supermassive black hole.

00:01:18 Speaker_03
So it's about six million times the mass of the Sun which makes it a little supermassive And there's another one the first photo that was taken It's a collaboration called event horizon and they took a photo of one in the galaxy m87 55 million light-years away that thing is around six billion times the mass of the Sun we imagine that six thousand million times more massive than our Sun and

00:01:41 Speaker_03
Is that the largest black hole we've ever discovered? No, there are bigger ones than that, but that's the scale of them. It's a big-ish one, that.

00:01:48 Speaker_03
But if you think about it, I mean, so there's a number, it's called the Schwarzschild radius of the thing.

00:01:54 Speaker_03
So if you took our sun, which you can fit a million Earths inside, and collapsed it down to make a black hole, it would form a black hole when it shrunk within a radius of three kilometres, about two miles.

00:02:07 Speaker_03
So you've got to take this thing, which is what I have to convert from kilometers to miles. That's OK. 700,000 kilometers. So it's about 500,000 miles radius or something like that in the sun. So you squash it down till it's about two miles.

00:02:22 Speaker_03
And then that would form a black hole. Wow. Six billion times the mass of the sun means you multiply that by six billion. So these things, the so-called Schwarzschild radius is, I don't know, larger than our solar system, basically.

00:02:38 Speaker_03
This thing that sits in the galaxy. So we've got these two photographs. Larger than our solar system? Yeah, the event. So it's a big structure. Now that's a Chandra X-ray image of There it is. That's it. So that one there, that's the M87 black hole.

00:03:01 Speaker_03
So what you're seeing there is the emission from the material that's swirling around it. It's called the accretion disk. So you have material that's orbiting very fast, emitting a lot of radiation. And that's what you see. It's a flat disk, by the way.

00:03:15 Speaker_03
So think Saturn's rings. So this material is very flat. But what you're seeing in that photograph is the light rays being bent around the black hole from that flat disk. So that was a prediction from Einstein's theory, basically.

00:03:30 Speaker_03
He published it in 1915. And you can predict that that's what one should look like. And then just about, what was that, four years ago now, maybe five years ago, for the first time in history, we get an image of one. And it looks like the prediction.

00:03:44 Speaker_03
So it's a remarkable thing. How phenomenal is that? Yeah. So we've got, we've had those two photographs. The other thing we've had is so-called gravitational wave detections. So these are colliding black holes and they collide and merge together.

00:03:59 Speaker_03
And obviously that's quite a violent event in the universe. And so that event, that process, ripples space-time. So it sends ripples out in the fabric of the universe, space and time.

00:04:12 Speaker_03
And actually Kip Thorne, I've spoken to him several times, he's one of the greats, won the Nobel Prize for this, and he calls it a storm in time. So you get a time storm.

00:04:23 Speaker_03
So really, we're to think as we speak now, there will be these very tiny ripples from violent cosmic events passing through this room. And they're changing the rate that time passes. So that as they go through, and we can detect that now.

00:04:37 Speaker_03
So we have detectors that can pick that up. And so we've seen those collisions as well.

00:04:41 Speaker_06
So these collisions how far away?

00:04:44 Speaker_03
Oh, millions of light years away.

00:04:45 Speaker_06
And they're affecting what's happening in this room right now?

00:04:48 Speaker_03
Yeah, to a tiny extent. So there's an experiment called LIGO, which is the, what it stands for, something like gravitational interferometer. I can't remember exactly what the word. So basically, it's laser beams.

00:05:02 Speaker_03
And there's one in Washington State, north of Seattle, and one in Louisiana. And they're laser beams, four-kilometer-long laser beams at right angles.

00:05:12 Speaker_03
And they can detect these very tiny shifts in the, effectively, you could say the length of the laser beam. It's a bit more fiddly and complicated. It essentially measures the distortion in space-time caused by these ripples.

00:05:27 Speaker_03
And it's way less than the diameter of an atomic nucleus, by the way. Way less. These little... Oh, my God! And so we've started to... We've observed many of those colours. There it is. There's LIGO.

00:05:40 Speaker_03
So it's just basically two laser beams that, but these ultra high precision thing. And so we've got data now of the collision of black holes and those event horizon pictures with radio telescopes. So that's part of it.

00:05:53 Speaker_03
But the main bit has been theoretical advances in understanding exactly

00:06:01 Speaker_03
In a sense, it was what's wrong with Stephen Hawking's calculation, which is a weird thing to say sometimes, because people think Stephen Hawking, sure, he didn't get his math wrong. But he did actually, in his calculation.

00:06:11 Speaker_03
So what he calculated back in 1973, 1974, is that a black hole, so we picture this thing from which nothing can escape, even light. So when you go in, you're gone, basically.

00:06:24 Speaker_03
What he calculated is that even though these things are just a distortion in space and time, that's the description of them. So it's almost as if there's nothing there apart from a distortion in space and time.

00:06:37 Speaker_03
He calculated that they glow, so they have a temperature. So they emit radiation. It's called Hawking radiation. And so important was that discovery.

00:06:48 Speaker_03
If you go to Westminster Abbey in London, look on the floor of the Abbey on his memorial stone, and he's in there next to Newton and Shakespeare and all these people, and he's there.

00:06:58 Speaker_03
And chiseled in stone on the floor of Westminster Abbey is his equation for the temperature of a black hole. So it was this tremendously important discovery. So he discovers these things glow, and he calculates how they glow.

00:07:12 Speaker_03
Very low temperature, but they emit things, which means that they shrink because they're emitting stuff, and so they're shrinking. So that means they have a lifetime. So first of all, one day they'll be gone.

00:07:24 Speaker_03
So that means that you have to address this question of what happened to all the stuff that fell in. And his calculation said that there's no record at all of anything that fell in, in all this radiation that's come off the black hole.

00:07:37 Speaker_03
So it's purely information-less radiation. So what that means is that black holes destroy information according to that calculation. And that's a big deal, because nowhere else in all of physics does anything erase information from the universe.

00:07:56 Speaker_03
So, it's really true that if I got this notepad and pen, right, and I wrote some things on it, and then I set fire to this, even, just incinerated it, put it in a nuclear explosion, whatever, in principle, according to all the laws of nature that we know, if you collected everything that came off, all the radiation, all the bits of ashes and things,

00:08:17 Speaker_03
and you could just measure it all, then just in principle, the idea is you could reconstruct the information.

00:08:24 Speaker_03
So it all gets scrambled up and thrown out, and so in practice you can't do it, but just in principle, the laws of nature say that information is not destroyed, it's just scrambled up in a way that you can't reconstruct.

00:08:37 Speaker_03
But this calculation that Stephen did said there is no information in that radiation at all. Zero, just nothing. So it seemed that uniquely in the universe, black holes erase information.

00:08:52 Speaker_06
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00:13:09 Speaker_06
There's no information, like how are you measuring whether or not there's information in it?

00:13:14 Speaker_03
So really in bits, I mean the idea is, and I should say it's very much in principle this, so no one thinks in practice you could reconstruct what I wrote down on this if you set fire to it, but in principle... Well maybe sometime in the future.

00:13:27 Speaker_03
I think a million years from now. Yeah, in principle, you could just collect everything. Then somewhere in all that radiation and ashes and light that's come off the thing is the information. It's there.

00:13:40 Speaker_03
So you could reconstruct the book or what I wrote on this page in principle. But the thing about Stephen's calculation was that even in principle, it said there is no information.

00:13:52 Speaker_03
And by the way, it's kind of easy to see why, actually, because this radiation, this Hawking radiation that comes off the black hole, it's coming from the horizon of the black hole. So I should say what the horizon is maybe.

00:14:08 Speaker_03
Remember I said that the sun, if you squashed it down within three kilometers of radius, you'd get this kind of distortion in space and time from which if you went in across this region, three kilometers, you went inside it, you couldn't get out.

00:14:25 Speaker_03
So that's called the event horizon. So you wouldn't notice if you fell through the horizon of the black hole in the Milky Way galaxy, if you went into that one.

00:14:34 Speaker_03
we could be falling through that horizon now in this room, and we wouldn't notice anything except that we couldn't get out again. And ultimately, in a few hours, in that case, time would end for us. So we just go, you go to the end of time.

00:14:50 Speaker_03
We could talk about that. There's a picture of that. Maybe I should talk about it. This is getting quite complicated already, isn't it? We didn't start in a relaxing way, did we?

00:14:57 Speaker_02
I don't know. No need to.

00:14:58 Speaker_03
No need to. Let's get right into it. So we wouldn't notice Not for the big black holes. So yes, so these supermassive black holes, we could fall across this horizon. It's just like being in empty space for us.

00:15:15 Speaker_03
So we'd just be talking now when we could have been talking on the outside of the horizon. And by the time I finished the sentence, we could be on the inside of the horizon, inside the black hole.

00:15:27 Speaker_03
According to Einstein's theory, at least, which is the theory that predicted them initially, we could just do that. We could just go in. And we wouldn't notice for a bit. The thing we would notice, ultimately, is you go inexorably. Nothing you can do.

00:15:43 Speaker_03
You go to this thing called the singularity once you've crossed the horizon. And you are going to that thing. And then the question arises, what is that thing? And one answer is, we don't know. But in Einstein's theory, it's the end of time.

00:15:59 Speaker_03
So one way of picturing what's happened here is so distorted is space and time by the collapse of a star or the collapse of loads of stuff to make these big supermassive black holes.

00:16:11 Speaker_03
We don't quite know how they form actually, but it's collapsing stuff. So it distorts space and time so much.

00:16:19 Speaker_03
that in a real sense they kind of flip over, they get mixed up and so this singularity which you might have thought of as the point to which this thing collapsed, this infinitely dense point you might think, but actually more correctly to be seen as the end of time.

00:16:36 Speaker_03
Because everything's got mixed up. So you go to the end of time. And it's just like saying, why can't I escape that thing? It's like, why can't we escape tomorrow? So we are going to tomorrow.

00:16:49 Speaker_03
And if I said to you, let's run away from tomorrow, you'd go, I can't run away from tomorrow.

00:16:55 Speaker_06
So is it the end of time because all information is being erased? So there's nothing?

00:17:00 Speaker_03
Yeah, I mean, is that the idea if you draw the thing you can draw a map of it and it just literally time ends Accord just purely in Einstein's theory.

00:17:12 Speaker_03
This is 1915 This theory general relativity you just get a line there a line that says there's no future beyond this line. It just stops Okay, so I mean admittedly, that's not We think there's a lot more to it than that.

00:17:29 Speaker_06
It's just we haven't figured the rest of it out yet?

00:17:31 Speaker_03
Well, that's the thing. So we're starting to get hints about what might happen, which is leading us to backtrack a bit. Why does this calculation Stephen did? Why does it say there's no information in this radiation?

00:17:51 Speaker_03
The thing is, it's coming from the horizon.

00:17:54 Speaker_03
So there's loads of ways to think about it, but one way is that this weird place, this point of no return in space, that you can fall through, but it's a point of no return, it sort of shakes, it almost disrupts the vacuum of space and almost shakes particles out of the vacuum.

00:18:13 Speaker_03
That's one way of thinking about it. But this radiation is coming from the vacuum, it's coming from empty space. Whereas if you think about the thing that I throw in, if I throw this notepad into the thing, then that goes to the singularity.

00:18:28 Speaker_03
It's got nothing to do, the radiation's got nothing to do with this thing. This thing is not set on fire or something like that. It's gone to the end of time and just whatever's happened to it has happened to it.

00:18:40 Speaker_03
So this radiation's got nothing to do with anything that falls in, at first sight, at least. And so that was the paradox. It's called the black hole information paradox.

00:18:51 Speaker_03
One way to put it is the laws of nature that we use to calculate what happens tell us that information is never destroyed. And when you calculate what happens, it tells us that information is destroyed.

00:19:03 Speaker_03
So that's why everyone got interested in it in the 80s, because it's interesting.

00:19:10 Speaker_06
When we're looking at the structure of the universe, obviously there's so much still to learn just about what's out there. But what role do we think, like what is the, is there a purpose, is that the right term, like for a black hole?

00:19:30 Speaker_06
Obviously, we know, is it still, do they still believe that in the center of every galaxy there's a supermassive black hole that's, what is it, one half of one percent of the mass of the galaxy, is that what it is?

00:19:40 Speaker_03
Yeah, something like that, yeah. There's occasionally a galaxy, I think one was discovered where we said, maybe we can't see evidence of a black hole, but I think, yeah. But yeah, so probably it's, who knows.

00:19:51 Speaker_06
What do you think that thing's doing there? Like, what is that? What's the, what is the, the structure is so insanely complex and so immense, and you see these things everywhere. And so, what purpose do you think they serve in the universe? So, I mean.

00:20:09 Speaker_06
Is that a right, it might not be the right term.

00:20:12 Speaker_03
So I think I'm right in saying we don't fully understand why all galaxies, as you said, maybe there's an exception, but all galaxies have a black hole, a supermassive black hole in the center.

00:20:27 Speaker_03
It's obviously got something to do with the way they form. And one of the purposes, by the way, of the James Webb Space Telescope is to try to look at the formation of the first galaxies. So that's one of the reasons that telescope is up there.

00:20:41 Speaker_03
So it's cutting edge research. We're trying to understand how the galaxies form. But clearly you're right that it has something to do with the way the galaxies form in the early universe. It's pulling in stars.

00:20:56 Speaker_03
They do pull in material, but if you've got stuff orbiting around them, it stays orbiting around it.

00:21:03 Speaker_03
So the way we first detected the one in the Milky Way, because that image is very new that we have of it, it's the stars orbiting it very close to it. They call the S stars that whiz around in these orbits very close to the black hole.

00:21:18 Speaker_06
So if you just imagine around the thing you go. Imagine that view. Yeah, because I think it's weird to look at the moon. Imagine there was a supermassive black hole above our head.

00:21:25 Speaker_02
It'd be so cool. I'd love to see one.

00:21:29 Speaker_06
The moon is so cool. The eclipse was wild. We had the eclipse here in Texas.

00:21:33 Speaker_02
Yeah, did you see it?

00:21:34 Speaker_06
Oh yeah, it was incredible. It's so strange. The whole day turns into night. All the birds stop chirping. And you're like staring up at this perfect eclipse. It was incredible.

00:21:44 Speaker_03
Did you get this? Because I saw one in India and I got this feeling that I was living on a ball of rock. Right. And it must have been just because the night just falls. Right. And suddenly you see the universe comes much more quickly.

00:22:00 Speaker_06
I went to the Keck Observatory once in Hawaii. I've been a few times, but one time I went on the perfect night with no moon, and it was sensational. It was such a vivid image of the entire Milky Way, and every inch of the sky was covered in stars.

00:22:19 Speaker_06
It was so phenomenal. a little upset because I was like this is above our head every day and this would radically shape the way human beings feel about our place in the universe. It would greatly expand the curiosity of young people to explore space.

00:22:36 Speaker_06
So many more people would get involved in astrophysics. So many more people would get involved in just the exploration of the known universe because it's so majestic and instead we have like our screen is off. It's like that. It's like that screen.

00:22:50 Speaker_06
That's what we see because of light pollution. That should be remedied. That's not a good trade-off. Lights are wonderful, but it seems to me like, hey, there's got to be a way to do this where you don't ruin the view of space.

00:23:05 Speaker_03
Yeah, because these questions we have about our place, and as you said, it can be easy to be myopic, can't it? You said if we look at our screens, it's earth that we think about at most. And most of us don't really think about earth.

00:23:21 Speaker_03
You think about your country or your city or your town. Or your neighborhood. Yeah, even think about the earth. But you're right, if you know, when you look at that arc of stars, and as you said, when you see it in a truly dark sky, it's powerful.

00:23:35 Speaker_03
It's incredible. 400 billion suns, give or take. 400,000 million suns. That's just words. You know what I'm saying?

00:23:44 Speaker_06
Yeah, it's insane. Your brain doesn't even process that. I could repeat that. If someone says, how many suns? Oh, 400 billion. I don't know what that means.

00:23:52 Speaker_03
It's so abstract. And most of them, I think the best guess would be all of them have planets. So pretty much. So you're talking about trillions of planets.

00:24:03 Speaker_06
Now we're getting into my subjects. What is your take on all this UAP disclosure stuff? Do you give it any mind at all? Are you busy with real stuff?

00:24:12 Speaker_03
No, I mean, the thing is, there's a thing called the Fermi paradox, which I think we talked about before on the show. And the paradox is that if we haven't seen it, let's assume we haven't seen any evidence of anything, that's a paradox.

00:24:27 Speaker_03
Because as I said, we now know. We didn't when Fermi first posed it, by the way. We now know there's so many planets out there. So let's say trillions of planets in the Milky Way.

00:24:36 Speaker_03
Milky Way's been there for over 13 billion years, pretty much the age of the universe. So if there's no one else out there, then the question is why?

00:24:45 Speaker_03
Because there's been so much time and so many places for civilizations to become space-faring civilizations. As Elon talks about multi-planetary civilization, we're very close to becoming a multi-planetary civilization.

00:25:00 Speaker_03
And once you have become a multi-planetary and multi-stellar civilization, if you become that, you're immortal, basically, essentially. So the question is, the paradox is, why does it appear nobody has done that?

00:25:16 Speaker_03
So the first thing to say is, I would not be surprised. If a UFO landed here now in the parking lot, I'd actually, not only would I not be surprised, I'd be relieved, actually. I'd be like,

00:25:28 Speaker_03
This is good, because it'd be a weight off my shoulders, because I'm worried that we're the only ones. That's a terrifying scenario. And we're going to make a mess of it. Yeah. And so I'm worried we could talk about that.

00:25:38 Speaker_06
But isn't it bizarre? One of the things that's fascinating about looking into the night skies, because it's so humbling, because it's so immense, it kind of puts everything into perspective. And it just gives you this different view of the world.

00:25:51 Speaker_06
So the universe is so vast and so spectacular. Why is it so important that we exist? To us, it's so important that we exist. And if we make a mess of this and we wind up dying, the universe is so big.

00:26:04 Speaker_06
If we were the only intelligent life in the universe and it didn't matter, we blew ourselves up, it's just a weird aberration that's attached to a survival instinct. We're a weird biological aberration.

00:26:16 Speaker_03
So, if you think about, let's assume, so we didn't finish the UAP thing. So I don't know about that, but anyway, let's assume just for the purposes of this, that we're the only ones in our galaxy, let's say. Then I would argue That.

00:26:36 Speaker_03
So there's a question I ask in these live shows that I do. I start with a question, which is kind of a joke, in a way, which is, what does it mean to live a finite, fragile life in an infinite, eternal universe? Which is a good question.

00:26:48 Speaker_03
That's what you're asking. What does it mean to live a finite life? The first thing to say is, meaning. What does it mean? That doesn't sound like a scientific concept, in a way. Meaning.

00:27:00 Speaker_03
I would argue that whatever it is, it self-evidently exists because the universe means something to us. I would argue that it's a property of complex biological systems. So whatever it is, it's something that emerges in this case from human brains.

00:27:16 Speaker_03
It self-evidently exists. Everyone who's listening to this knows that the world means something to them. So I would argue that if this planet is the only planet in our galaxy where complex biological systems exist at our level, then it follows.

00:27:35 Speaker_03
It's the only place where meaning currently exists in a galaxy of 400 billion suns. And therefore, I would argue just for that very basic point that we have a tremendous responsibility in some sense.

00:27:49 Speaker_03
By the way, I gave a talk, a little video thing at one of the climate summits, the COP climate summit in Glasgow in the UK a few years ago. And they asked me to do a little video to the world leaders.

00:28:00 Speaker_03
And I think they thought I'd say, you know, welcome to Glasgow, have a nice meeting. But I made this little argument as fast as I could. I said, it's possible at least that this is the only place where complex biology has emerged in our galaxy.

00:28:15 Speaker_03
If that's true, this is the only island of meaning in a galaxy of 400 billion suns. And you are responsible for it because you are the world leaders.

00:28:22 Speaker_03
Therefore, if you destroy it through deliberate action or inaction, then each of you would be personally responsible for destroying meaning in a galaxy of 400 billion suns, potentially forever. Now go and discuss that, was my intro to Glasgow.

00:28:38 Speaker_03
And we can all argue, because people have been listening to this going, nonsense, how can it be? We can all argue about whether that's true.

00:28:45 Speaker_03
What I would say is, given that as far as I'm aware, we don't have any good evidence to the contrary, which goes back to your previous question, it's a reasonable working assumption. So why don't we just operate on that basis?

00:29:00 Speaker_03
And then, you know, yeah, if someone lands tomorrow, as I said, I'd be very delighted because then what I just said would be false. And we could relax a bit and go, it doesn't really matter if we destroy ourselves to some extent.

00:29:10 Speaker_03
But so I think it's worth taking seriously the idea that civilizations are very rare. Now, and by the way, I used to say, so I probably last time I was on actually, I used to say that in the far future, then the complex life will cease to exist.

00:29:30 Speaker_03
So it probably doesn't matter on a global scale, but it matters locally because of this idea that meaning emerges from complex biological systems. So if you don't care about that, what do you care about? But actually, I read a book.

00:29:43 Speaker_03
Have you heard David Deutsch on the show? David Deutsch is a really interesting physicist. I don't believe I have. He's one of the founders of quantum computing. And so he's a big figure in quantum computing in particular. But he's a great thinker.

00:29:55 Speaker_03
And I was reading some stuff he wrote recently. And he pointed out that it's not necessarily true that life is temporary. Because you could imagine a situation as you go into the far future.

00:30:10 Speaker_03
Let's imagine that we continue for a million years or a billion years as a civilization. Imagine what we could do. It is possible that life can get so advanced in the universe that it can start to manipulate the universe itself. Or at least stars.

00:30:28 Speaker_03
He said you could imagine, for example, just imagine. Wild speculation. But imagine life gets so advanced that it can start to change the destiny of a star. Maybe it could start to add material into the star or something, whatever.

00:30:44 Speaker_03
We don't know how to do that or if it's possible, but imagine it could. Then the evolution of stars would, life would matter in the sense that it could start to change the way that the universe behaves on a large scale in the future.

00:30:57 Speaker_03
And so it's, it reminded me actually, there's another great book by John Barrow and Frank Tifler called The Anthropic Cosmological Principle from the 1980s. It's one of my favorite books actually. And I remembered it.

00:31:10 Speaker_03
And in there, they speculate about this life in the far, far future.

00:31:15 Speaker_03
And if it became powerful enough to manipulate the whole universe, or the observable universe, then suddenly you can't make predictions about the far future unless you consider the possible impact of life on the universe.

00:31:28 Speaker_03
And whilst this is, I should say, it's wildly speculative, but it's actually logically, it's quite an interesting point.

00:31:35 Speaker_03
So I kind of disagree with myself a few years ago where I would have said that life is extremely valuable because it brings meaning to the universe but temporarily.

00:31:46 Speaker_03
And so it brings these brief like flickering candles of meaning and then they go out again.

00:31:52 Speaker_03
But it's worth considering, it might not necessarily be true that, if you really think, I mean, just to say, I mean, it must sound to many people listening, just nonsense, right? Science fiction.

00:32:04 Speaker_03
But if you think our civilization has been around for 10,000 years at best, really, give or take. And in that time, we've sent stuff out of the solar system.

00:32:16 Speaker_03
Although we don't yet, we're way away from being able to manipulate stars, we can manipulate planets. So we are changing the way this planet operates. Life has changed it.

00:32:28 Speaker_03
The oxygen in the atmosphere, before we appeared, the oxygen in the atmosphere is a product of life. So life already we know changes planets.

00:32:37 Speaker_03
And so I like that speculation that just possibly it's not just a temporary little phenomenon that flickers in and out and then disappears again. It could have a real bearing on the future of the universe.

00:32:50 Speaker_06
And you could also make the argument that intelligent life might be the universe's way to force change.

00:32:56 Speaker_06
That intelligent life seems to inevitably, like intelligence itself must come out of curiosity because otherwise there's no reason to seek information. So intelligent life consistently seeks information and then constantly demands innovation.

00:33:09 Speaker_06
Like intelligent life is not satisfied with the iPhone 14 and wants the 15 and wants the 16 and wants to keep going forever and ever and ever. Well, if you scale that up,

00:33:17 Speaker_06
you get this current dilemma that we're in with just artificial intelligence and the concept of sentient artificial intelligence and then quantum computing and you get insane amounts of computing power powered by nuclear reactors that are essentially a life form.

00:33:32 Speaker_06
Well, if that thing says, you guys are doing it all wrong, I got a better way and it starts making better versions of itself because it's sentient,

00:33:39 Speaker_06
If you scale up a thousand years from now, you could imagine it becoming God, like a God-like property, like an unstoppable force that has access to every element in known space.

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00:35:26 Speaker_03
I'm really interested in these kind of arguments. You put it really well, actually. It's fascinating, right? It really is.

00:35:32 Speaker_06
Because it scales up. If you go from, look, just in the four billion years, which is a blip in the universe, right? And I wanted to ask you about that, too.

00:35:40 Speaker_06
We'll get to that, the actual, the James Webb Telescope's latest, but if you just take that, okay, life has been around for what, four billion years? Yeah. That's not that long.

00:35:50 Speaker_06
So four billion years, we've gone from single-celled organisms to the James Webb Telescope. We've gone to, we have Starlink, we have electric cars, bananas. You could imagine if we had another 10 billion years to exist.

00:36:04 Speaker_03
Well, exactly.

00:36:05 Speaker_03
And this is the point that David Deutsch made in the book I've just been reading, and John Byron, Frank Ziffler made before that, that although it sounds insane, as you said, and that 4 billion years, there's a lot to say about that, by the way.

00:36:21 Speaker_03
Because for three billion plus years of that on this planet, it was just single cells. And so it's only in the last, let's say a billion years, but actually a bit less, that we've had multicellular organisms.

00:36:35 Speaker_03
So three quarters of it at the time were just single cell. That's even crazier. Which is one of the reasons that many people think civilizations might be rare. Because the only evidence we have is this planet.

00:36:48 Speaker_03
And the evidence on this planet is that single-celled life is sort of the way that things are for most of the history. So it seems like an accident in a way that happened late on in the history of life on Earth that produced multicellular life.

00:37:04 Speaker_03
Now, is that typical? We don't know. Maybe it took a longer time here than it might do somewhere else. But if it's typical, I mean, four billion years, you said it's not a long time. It is a third of the age of the universe.

00:37:18 Speaker_03
So here... You put it that way, it's a long time. One third of the age of the universe to go from the origin of life to a civilization. And so what was required here on Earth was that that unbroken chain of life

00:37:32 Speaker_03
remained unbroken for a third of the age of the universe, in a violent universe. We know there are impacts from space. Many stars are significantly more active than the sun. So the sun's kind of quite a boring little star that just ticks along.

00:37:48 Speaker_03
It's very nice to us. We're also on the edge of the galaxy, by the way. We're not close in. If you go into this region where that black hole is, There are a lot of stars around. There are supernova explosions and all sorts of stuff going on.

00:38:01 Speaker_03
So it's violent in there. So maybe you can only get unbroken chains of life for billions of years on the outskirts of a galaxy. So there are fewer stars and planets out there. And maybe even then you need to be fortunate.

00:38:15 Speaker_06
Well, also, aren't we very unusual in the size of our moon and the distance?

00:38:19 Speaker_03
The moon is big, and so it stabilizes the spin. So the spin axis, Mars, I think, if I'm right, I think the spin axis is wobbled around by something like 60 degrees or something.

00:38:33 Speaker_03
Imagine that, imagine Earth was, the pole was wobbling around and everyone was falling over. You wouldn't imagine that complex life like us would emerge on a planet like that.

00:38:41 Speaker_06
Right, it would be too difficult to survive, forget about innovate.

00:38:45 Speaker_06
So if you think about the idea that these complex, it seems like one thing you can be sure of in the observable world is that things get more complex or they adapt to their environment.

00:39:00 Speaker_06
And if you have a bunch of these intelligent apes that are competing globally with the most significant technology in the world, you could see how that would be just a property of the universe, potentially.

00:39:16 Speaker_06
Although we haven't discovered it yet, this is why we're so curious about alien life. Not just because of the possibilities of all the stars, but because we kind of see what would happen with us if we keep going.

00:39:28 Speaker_06
You know, it's just that might be just what the universe does, that the universe creates intelligent people that create artificial intelligence that becomes far superior and literally is a part of the whole process of creating the universe itself.

00:39:43 Speaker_03
Yeah, an evolutionary biologist would say the counter argument is that what life does, what evolution does, is produce organisms that are well fitted to their environment. They fit niches in the environment. But there's no drive to complexity.

00:40:00 Speaker_03
There's no law that says that the more complex you are, the more likely you are to survive and flourish. And the example of life on Earth probably backs that up. Biologically.

00:40:09 Speaker_03
If you talk about three billion years of single cells, what that means is that the single-celled organisms were just doing very well. Right. And so it's not obvious.

00:40:19 Speaker_03
It's not a given that just because you suddenly get more complicated, you're better than the single-celled things. Right.

00:40:25 Speaker_06
So there could be planets where life never evolves past single cells, but that life exists.

00:40:31 Speaker_03
Earth was almost that. So you go back one billion years from now, and Earth was that planet. So the interesting things that happened, photosynthesis, complex biochemistry. But as far as we can tell, nothing more complex than a single cell.

00:40:48 Speaker_03
So that's most of the history of life on Earth. So that might suggest that that's the way that things are usually. And that this is an aberration.

00:40:57 Speaker_04
Yeah.

00:40:57 Speaker_03
And again, to emphasize, we don't know. Right. But we've got one example. The other observation, though, it goes back to your first question. It is true that we do look sort of systematically for signals or evidence of civilizations out there.

00:41:12 Speaker_03
There's the Breakthrough Listen Project, and there's SETI. So we do. And we haven't seen anything, I would say. And I know that if you go onto the web and things and the internet, people say, we have, we've seen stuff and I've seen stuff.

00:41:29 Speaker_03
But just the basic point, as far as I know, scientifically speaking, we haven't seen anything at all compelling. No. I agree with that. Basically nothing. Basically nothing. And so astronomers have a name for it. They call it the great silence.

00:41:46 Speaker_03
the great silence. And it's a tremendous mystery, as I said earlier, but it does seem that the universe is quiet, as far as we can tell.

00:41:54 Speaker_06
Is it possible that we're looking for something that is not applicable to this particular type of civilization?

00:42:01 Speaker_03
Yeah, there are different. So the counter arguments when we say we've seen nothing, therefore, as far as we can tell, there's nothing out there. You could say, well, what if the civilization that evolved is far ahead of us?

00:42:16 Speaker_03
What if the space probes are the size of an iPhone? Well, that's kind of a reasonable thing to say, actually. Because why would you not, if you can build a little thing, it's easier to send around the galaxy than a big thing.

00:42:29 Speaker_03
So why would you not, as you said, these hyper, ultra-intelligent quantum computers, why would they not be tiny? So you could say that. You could say, well, maybe they are.

00:42:37 Speaker_03
Maybe they're all over the solar system, but they're the size of phones, and we wouldn't have seen them. Yeah. OK. You would have to concede that.

00:42:46 Speaker_03
So we're just saying that the way that we've looked for energy signatures, for example, of civilizations, we tend to look for big things because that's all we can see. And we don't see any big things. We don't see any big structures.

00:43:00 Speaker_03
We don't see any evidence of spacecraft and all that kind of stuff. But I could make an argument that, well, why would the spacecraft be big? Right. Because as you said, it's another thing you said, actually.

00:43:12 Speaker_03
It's interesting that we're on the verge now of creating things, artificially intelligent things, which are smarter than us. So I think everyone agrees that we're on the verge of doing that, artificial general intelligence.

00:43:28 Speaker_03
Some people might think it's further away than others. You probably had people on the show who said it's five years away, or two years away, or 50 years away. But it's probably not 10,000 years away. So that which is the blink of an eye.

00:43:41 Speaker_03
Once you've done that, and once you've got those things, I find it hard to believe that if we get that far as a civilization, we won't begin to send those things out to the planets and ultimately to the stars.

00:43:55 Speaker_03
So we'll begin that process if we survive long enough. And it shouldn't be too much longer. Might be 100 years, might be 10,000 years, but we should do it. So it becomes a powerful question. Why does it appear that nobody's done that?

00:44:11 Speaker_03
And my guess, in the absence of other evidence, would be biology. It's just that maybe the number of places where biology becomes complex enough to do that is on average one, maybe on average zero per galaxy.

00:44:31 Speaker_03
Maybe just civilizations are very, very, very rare in the universe. Maybe that's an answer. But that's a guess.

00:44:39 Speaker_06
My always my question is always when it gets to artificial intelligence when if we do create some sort of super intelligent sentient life It's not going to have any motivations and you could say well if you program it to have the motivation But it becomes sentient it recognizes the illogical programming.

00:44:57 Speaker_06
It's gonna reject it. We've already seen evidence of that We've already seen evidence of artificial intelligence They use now like giving a time limit to solve a problem doesn't like the time like it gives self more time like it'll

00:45:09 Speaker_06
It's like they're maneuvering and thinking right so I assume that they would do that. So why would they want to explore? Isn't curiosity a part of what it means to be a biological thing that has to worry about instincts?

00:45:24 Speaker_06
You have human reward systems, you want to breed, you want to take care of your DNA, you want to protect your community, all these biological things that are from us being intelligent animals.

00:45:36 Speaker_06
If we transcend that, or if life transcends that to the point of whatever we want to call this intelligence that's in a digital form that's far superior to our intelligence, What motivations would it have? It's not greedy. It doesn't have lust.

00:45:50 Speaker_06
It doesn't have the desire to control resources. It might have some sort of mandate to stay functional. But other than that, what's it going to do? Why would it do anything? And that might be ultimately where we go to.

00:46:03 Speaker_06
This idea that everything has to keep progressing, we have to build bigger skyscrapers, that might be stupid. That might be nonsense. And intelligence might find a way to exist in a much more static state where it doesn't have any desire to expand.

00:46:20 Speaker_03
There's a lot of points in there. So, you're right. What you're arguing, I suppose, is whether intelligence is integral to the structure, the biological structure, or whether it is a separate thing. So again, I think the answer is it's not known.

00:46:43 Speaker_03
You could argue either way, but the counter-argument would be The brain, these things, are just computers, ultimately. There's nothing magical in there, there's nothing. It is connected to a body, and so there are these sensations.

00:46:57 Speaker_03
But it doesn't seem to me impossible that a silicon-based life form or whatever it is, obviously it has sensors, it has access to the environment, it exists, it thinks. I don't see any fundamental difference between an intelligence

00:47:18 Speaker_03
based on silicon, let's say, or a quantum computer, or whatever it is, and this intelligence here.

00:47:24 Speaker_03
So, I know that many researchers in this area do say that it's not a brain, they call it a brain in a jar, don't they, and say, well, that's not, it needs to be connected to all this, this is part of our intelligence, and that's surely true as well.

00:47:39 Speaker_03
So it's a very good question, but I suppose if you say, it's not obvious to me that a different kind of intelligence in a different structure, running on a computer or whatever it is, would necessarily have different motivations to us.

00:47:56 Speaker_03
I mean, you could equally well argue that these motivations to survive and curiosity, those ideas, the desire to explore, you could argue those are fundamental properties of intelligence and not of biology.

00:48:12 Speaker_06
But isn't an intelligence that's motivated by a finite life in a vulnerable physical frame? Because we were constantly – most innovation relies upon quicker, safer transportation, more secure buildings, things along those lines.

00:48:27 Speaker_06
And then computers that help you do your job better and actually can do things that you can't do. And that's – this is – a lot of it is based on this other weird thing we do where we want to control resources.

00:48:39 Speaker_06
And we want to figure out reasons why these people are bad so we can go and take their stuff and then enter troops and dig the oil or whatever you have to do.

00:48:46 Speaker_06
Look, we're constantly in this battle for resources that if you take it back to tribal times, it's like a natural human instinct. Like we had to protect the food sources. We had to fight off the conquering tribes. You had to protect your DNA line.

00:48:59 Speaker_06
But all these things are why we became innovative. We had a motivation to stay alive and to thrive. And then there's bastardizations of those motivations, like the stock market, where things get weird and you're just competing over numbers.

00:49:12 Speaker_06
It gets really weird. But it's basically this desire to compete with the DNA that's around you. Once we're not biological anymore, what would be the motivation? And would we not just exist in the most peaceful, Zen, Buddhist way possible?

00:49:28 Speaker_06
Which is what everybody who's a spiritual person who meditates all the time, that's what you strive for. You strive for this complete abandonment of self, this complete emptiness and one with the universe.

00:49:40 Speaker_06
If we could just exist like that, why would we need to go to space?

00:49:44 Speaker_03
It's a wonderful argument, isn't it, that our humanity, because part of the thing that you described, this desire to create things and build things and explore and expand, is almost the definition of being human, isn't it? Yes.

00:50:00 Speaker_03
And so the idea that if you remove all threat and you essentially become immortal, then you're almost saying, what's the point? It's my T-shirt. It's existence. What does it matter, right?

00:50:13 Speaker_03
By the way, this T-shirt, I've got to say, was designed by a friend of mine, Peter Saville, who's a great designer, who designed the Joy Division Unknown Pleasures album cover, amongst other things. Oh, wow. That's cool. That's great.

00:50:23 Speaker_03
It's a Joy Division.

00:50:24 Speaker_06
Is that available on your website or anything?

00:50:26 Speaker_03
It probably is, but I'm not going to do that, because it's vulgar, isn't it? No, no, no.

00:50:29 Speaker_06
It's cool. I want to buy one.

00:50:30 Speaker_03
That's why I asked. We did these gigs. I talk about them later, called Symphonic Horizons, which shows with cosmology, but also symphony orchestra.

00:50:39 Speaker_03
And he was exploring these issues actually, but most of the music was Strauss's Zarathustra, which is based on Nietzsche's book. So it's kind of exploring these questions actually, of what's the point of existence.

00:50:53 Speaker_03
And I do have some sympathy with that idea that A great deal of our humanity comes from our fragility. And so your question, I think, is fascinating. What happens when you become godlike? You said it earlier.

00:51:06 Speaker_03
If you acquire so much knowledge that you're essentially a god by any description and so much power, then you become effectively immortal, which is what our descendants in the far future could be, as you said, these AI descendants. What's the point?

00:51:22 Speaker_06
Not just effectively immortal, but aren't we looking at the universe itself? We're looking at it through the framing of a biological primate that's trying to figure it out.

00:51:34 Speaker_06
If they understand the universe completely, and they understand everything about it, and they exist inside of it, there would really be no desire to travel.

00:51:44 Speaker_06
There'd be no desire to explore what you already understand about everything, and you probably have access to every single aspect of what subatomic particles are actually doing. When we're studying them, we're like, what's going on?

00:51:59 Speaker_06
If you're infinitely more intelligent than we are, if you scale it from now

00:52:03 Speaker_06
to quantum computing, sentient artificial intelligence, and you give us a thousand years without getting hit by an asteroid, or technology gets to the point where it can protect against super volcanoes and there's no natural disruptions, and then they've completely eliminated violence on Earth, they've completely eliminated all the terrible primate genetic instincts.

00:52:23 Speaker_06
You could make a reasonable argument there's no reason to travel, or if you do travel, We might be confused in thinking that our physical form is the only way consciousness can reach specific destinations.

00:52:38 Speaker_06
It might be a way that they're traveling without actually being here and observing this. I would imagine if you watched chimps in the jungle and then all of a sudden they started to figure out bombs,

00:52:50 Speaker_06
He'd be like, okay, we might wanna go tell these chimps not to fuckin' blow each other up. I mean, it's an absurd premise, but if a chimp figured out a nuclear bomb, I think we'd step in. I think we'd say, hey, hey, hey, hey, dude, no.

00:53:04 Speaker_06
You're gonna kill everything. Now, if you're infinite, look, we're not that removed from chimps. What do we share, like 98% of their DNA? And we're only removed from them by what, a few million years from a nearest cousin? That's not that long, right?

00:53:21 Speaker_06
So you could imagine something that's infinitely more intelligent looking at us exactly the way we'd look at a chimp with a nuclear bomb. Like, hey! My club is called The Comedy Mothership, and we designed it.

00:53:34 Speaker_06
It's all UFO-themed, and the rooms are Fat Man and Little Boy. The reason why I named it that, because that was the beginning of all the UFO sightings in the country. Those bombs sort of set off the alarm for the universe. Oh, the monkeys have a bomb.

00:53:51 Speaker_03
Yeah, I mean, I thought of this a while ago. I remembered I was talking to someone, and they said, yeah, I'm not worried about this. I'm not worried about the fact that AI could become more intelligent than us.

00:54:02 Speaker_03
What was it going to be like when we're not the smartest things on the planet? Which might be just a few years from now. And I, again, I might be quite relieved, because I'm not sure they could fuck it up. the level that we're fucking it up.

00:54:17 Speaker_06
You have to give it legitimate sentience. It would have to be completely independent from any ideology, and you would have to look at things completely objectively. But imagine a government that is run that way.

00:54:30 Speaker_06
like really run in a way where there is an actual distribution of resources for all the human beings on the planet so poverty is instantaneously eradicated you give electricity and clean water to everyone on earth immediately

00:54:45 Speaker_06
Immediately we figure out how to distribute healthy food. Immediately all the toxins and preservatives that have been giving people cancer, immediately they're removed from the human diet.

00:54:56 Speaker_06
They immediately make sure that we have no polluting of rivers, that we're not draining all the fish out of the ocean. Immediately change all of the treaties about nuclear weapons. All the nuclear weapons got to go. This AI government just

00:55:12 Speaker_06
I imagine they'd say that immediately.

00:55:15 Speaker_02
No more dictators.

00:55:16 Speaker_06
Cut the shit with the dictator. We're just going to let human beings exist in harmony, guided by this super intelligent god-like thing that we've created out of silicone.

00:55:27 Speaker_03
Honestly, I've had the same thought. That's the utopian view. Yeah, and so I have thought, how could it be worse? In fact, it could be significantly better.

00:55:37 Speaker_06
AI gets fucked with by people, right? And the AI we've seen so far has all the greasy fingerprints of human emotion and illogical. Like, when Google released their AI, they asked them to show photographs, create images, rather, of Nazi soldiers.

00:55:55 Speaker_06
So they did a diverse group of Nazi soldiers, including an African American woman, an Asian woman, a Native American woman with braids who was a Nazi. It's so nuts, because it's like, okay, Somebody fucked with this. This doesn't make any sense.

00:56:15 Speaker_06
You can't do that because if you get a virus, an illogical virus, that somehow or another gets into AI and it's unchecked, if AI isn't completely logical and objective and sentient and basing it just entirely on what's best for the human race,

00:56:32 Speaker_06
then you just have a superpower that you have control over, and then you can decide, like, no more abortions, you can decide exactly... And as you said, the definition of what is best is a moral decision that we make.

00:56:47 Speaker_06
But you can make some distinctions in terms of, like, allocation of resources. Like, you could make some... If I was a superintelligence and I looked at Earth, I'd say, listen, A lot of people are not going to like this, but there's a reality.

00:57:00 Speaker_06
The reason why you're worried about the border, because people are sneaking in, is because other parts of the world are fucking terrible. So that needs to be cleaned up. That needs to be fixed.

00:57:11 Speaker_06
We need to figure out how to raise, instead of spending money on blowing people up, let's spend all this money to raise up all of civilization so there's no more third world.

00:57:22 Speaker_03
Well, that's one of the arguments. I spoke to Robert Zubrin, who I know wrote these wonderful books about colonizing space. And so he's a fascinating character.

00:57:33 Speaker_03
And I spoke to him once, and he made this very simple argument that, as you said, one of the problems we have is competition for resources. And of course, the competition for resources is now so extreme that it's not only wars,

00:57:46 Speaker_03
that it creates and always has. But it's also, of course, we damage the planet if we overexploit the resources and so on. So you've got this problem about resources. And he's right.

00:57:56 Speaker_03
He would say this is the number one motivation for going up, because there are, in fact, infinite resources out there. And so once you begin to have access to the asteroids and access to Mars and beyond,

00:58:10 Speaker_03
You you in you can imagine a world where you alleviate that pressure and ladies I want to tell you there's a planet out there bigger than earth.

00:58:19 Speaker_06
That's all diamonds.

00:58:21 Speaker_02
They're a diamond planet There's unlimited imagination, but isn't it like several times larger than earth?

00:58:30 Speaker_06
Yeah an entire diamond and

00:58:32 Speaker_03
Yeah, and I think it's Neptune or Uranus that we think has diamonds in it. Oh my goodness.

00:58:39 Speaker_06
And diamonds are only valuable because we decide they're valuable. The De Beers people are brilliant. They lock them all up. They're like, oh, this is really hard to get.

00:58:47 Speaker_03
They're good for drill bits as well. But we can make them for real.

00:58:49 Speaker_06
But this is the interesting thing. You can make them for jewelry as well. But some women don't want them. Don't want the artificial.

00:58:56 Speaker_03
No, they want the real ones.

00:58:57 Speaker_06
They want the ones that came out of the earth.

00:58:59 Speaker_03
We value things. Gold. Yes. Gold is another example. Right. It's valuable because there isn't very much of it.

00:59:04 Speaker_06
Right. There's so little of it, it's like a football field, right?

00:59:07 Speaker_03
Yeah. A football field of gold in the whole world. You know, by the way, that we were talking about the gravitational wave detectors earlier and the collision between black holes that we detect with them.

00:59:17 Speaker_03
We also detected a collision between neutron stars using the gravitational wave detector. And we pointed optical telescopes at that collision and saw the signature of gold being manufactured. And it was always a question.

00:59:32 Speaker_03
We used to just think, well, it comes from supernova explosions. But it also seems now that it comes from the collision between neutron stars.

00:59:41 Speaker_03
So one of the reasons that it's very rare is because it takes rare processes in the universe to actually make it. Which makes it all the more wonderful when you think about it.

00:59:49 Speaker_03
If you look at the gold of your wedding ring or your watch or whatever it is, some of those nuclei, some of those elements clearly came from the collision between neutron stars at some point before our solar system was formed, which makes it more wonderful.

01:00:06 Speaker_06
Well, every human being is a carbon-based life form.

01:00:09 Speaker_03
And carbon comes from... Yeah, as Carl Sagan said, star stuff.

01:00:13 Speaker_06
That's the craziest thing ever. Like, you need a star to blow up to make a person in the first place.

01:00:17 Speaker_03
It's a remarkable thing. I want to go back to something you said, actually, about the... I've been thinking about this, but you said this godlike intelligences that we might create. And kind of what's the point?

01:00:30 Speaker_03
What would be the point of existence if you were immortal and you knew everything? Wouldn't it be incredibly dull? What you said, it's almost like a meditative state. So we strive for this peace, essentially.

01:00:48 Speaker_06
Well, maybe we're thinking of it as dull because we don't have access to the information. Like, we have a very limited amount of senses. We have hearing and sight and taste and touch and, you know, it's very limited, right?

01:01:03 Speaker_06
Why would we assume that that is the only way to perceive things? If you could become infinitely intelligent, you could legitimately perceive neutrinos, you know, you could, right?

01:01:16 Speaker_06
Like, if we have this thing that detects the ripples from black holes colliding, that It might be a feature of a future human body. If we have an unbelievable capacity for information because it's artificially created.

01:01:29 Speaker_06
So we get over this biological limitation of long scale evolution, like a really good, like the human brain doubled over 2 million years. And it's the biggest mystery in the entire fossil record. Like what happened? All these theories.

01:01:40 Speaker_06
But that's a long fucking time. In 2 million years of technology, we could become God. Or a god-like being. But it might be how the universe creates itself.

01:01:51 Speaker_06
The universe might facilitate that through these biological beings fighting over resources and territory, which ultimately leads to innovation.

01:02:01 Speaker_06
which ultimately leads to cities and agriculture, which ultimately leads to safety, which leads to schools, and people start sharing information.

01:02:08 Speaker_06
You get curious people that figure things out, and you have to battle ideologies along the way, which makes you work harder. You know, we all look back, well, look what they did to Galileo, and everybody has these, you can't. Science has to advance.

01:02:20 Speaker_06
And this, along with materialism, so materialism is a primary driver. Everybody wants the newest, latest, greatest thing. You can have a car from 2007 and it's great. It's indistinguishable from a car today in most ways. It's just a car.

01:02:39 Speaker_06
But you're like, oh, they got the new one. Oh, that's the new Lexus. Look at that. Oh, four-wheel steering. Do we want constantly new stuff? We want to keep up with the Joneses, you know? I'm the biggest dummy in the world. I got a new iPhone.

01:02:52 Speaker_06
It has actually better. It's got a few features. One of the things that's very fascinating is I was in the mountains last week. You can text message people with no one around you. No signal. I mean, woods.

01:03:05 Speaker_06
forever and if you hold your phone in a particular part of the sky it'll tell you which way to scan it and the satellite allows you to iMessage back and forth with people. Totally like you are 5G everywhere. It's crazy.

01:03:20 Speaker_03
So you've already achieved nirvana, then. You don't need to go any further. It's fascinating.

01:03:25 Speaker_06
It's so fascinating to me. I'm so enamored by it.

01:03:28 Speaker_03
I would argue, I think, imagine that you had access to, as you said, essentially infinite knowledge. Imagine you're one of these beings in the future.

01:03:40 Speaker_03
Maybe the things that we created that essentially know almost everything there is to know, in some sense. I think that they would feel there was no point in existing at all.

01:03:54 Speaker_06
But why? Isn't that a human thing? This idea of a point? Like I make this argument with people.

01:04:00 Speaker_06
There's a Buddhist concept that you, I think it's Buddhism, or some strains of Buddhism, where you live your life over and over and over and over again until you get it right.

01:04:12 Speaker_06
Until every time something comes up, you make the right decision, you achieve enlightenment. You do it over. And I said that to someone and they were horrified.

01:04:20 Speaker_06
Like, oh my God, could you imagine living life over again, starting off as a baby, going through high school again? Oh, I couldn't do it. I'm like, but you did it and you're alive now. Like, I really enjoy life. I have great friends.

01:04:35 Speaker_06
I have a great family. I have a fantastic job. I live in a great place. Like, if I had to keep doing this forever, why would that be horrible? I like doing it every day. Why would I not like doing it? I don't understand.

01:04:46 Speaker_06
Like, I don't understand this idea that if something is infinite and it goes on forever, that's terrifying. Whereas if it's existing right now, right now, I know you're going to get tired. I know you're going to go to bed.

01:04:56 Speaker_06
I know you're going to get hungry. I know you're going to eat. But you're just existing. It's this state of existence that varies depending on emotions and mood and stress levels and environment, but it's just existence.

01:05:09 Speaker_06
If existence was eternal and it just kept going on and on, why would that be terrifying for you when you're enjoying it now?

01:05:15 Speaker_03
If you think about some of the things that make us

01:05:19 Speaker_06
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That's 40% off your first year at lifelock.com Slash JRE terms apply because human so one of them would be Hope for example, right for the future

01:06:45 Speaker_03
or indeed fear, or those emotions that are connected with not knowing. Not knowing what's around the next corner. As you said, even exploration. So if you remove that, if you remove

01:07:01 Speaker_03
any sense of not knowing what the future will be, you do remove hope as well as fear.

01:07:08 Speaker_03
So you could argue that some of the best, the essence of being human, some of the things that we value the most and make us most valuable in the universe in this sense, some of those things come from incomplete knowledge. I mean, surely hope does.

01:07:23 Speaker_03
How could you have hope and excitement about what's going to happen tomorrow if you know

01:07:28 Speaker_06
But don't you think that that just motivates improvement? That all that hope just motivates you to do better and get better? And don't you think that might be a feature of a biological organism?

01:07:37 Speaker_03
It's like you said when you were growing up. You said, like, you know, when you're in high school or when you're young. Christmas, for example. You know, when you're at Christmas Eve. Yeah. And you go, what am I going to get tomorrow? Yeah.

01:07:46 Speaker_03
It's one of the most wonderful feelings, isn't it? One of the most wonderful. Like, oh, God, and the presents are there. That's incredible. None of that would exist if you were one of these super beings. But that's just for us.

01:08:02 Speaker_06
It's just for us that it appears magical. When you're comparing that to black holes colliding, Like, is it really so important what you got for Christmas?

01:08:15 Speaker_06
But it's us, it's our biological needs, our needs to be shown that we're loved, we got a good toy, our excitement about something that we've wanted that was inaccessible, you know, something that you were hoping for for Christmas and you got it, like a video game console, oh!

01:08:35 Speaker_03
And you finally got it. I think what I'm getting to, is it purely biological? This is a great conversation, by the way. I haven't thought about this. But it's only us. Is it just a prophecy of intelligence?

01:08:47 Speaker_03
I mean, you're arguing, and it's a good argument, that many of these desires come from our biological fragility. Yes. And also the fragility of our planet, as you said. But it could be.

01:09:01 Speaker_03
that these ideas of meaning, of what it means to exist, of what is the point of existence, maybe that's a general property of any intelligent system. Well, it seems like it's imperative for survival.

01:09:18 Speaker_06
You have to have a reason to do it. It would be baked into the code if you wanted this thing to keep going.

01:09:24 Speaker_06
Otherwise, why wouldn't it just stick with, you know, as soon as you figured out running water and electricity and how to ship food, why would you keep going?

01:09:33 Speaker_03
Is this such a thing? contentment though, for anyone.

01:09:39 Speaker_06
It's possible. It's possible to achieve. I mean, that's what Buddhists strive for. That's what all that meditation is, the abandonment of all material possessions. It might be horrendous though. I think it would be horrendous.

01:09:50 Speaker_06
I don't want to abandon everything and no more sex and you can't have a glass of wine.

01:09:55 Speaker_03
That's just crazy. So that's what I'm kind of interested that God a god-like being might be so bored and so devoid of all excitement because those things like hope and curiosity.

01:10:11 Speaker_03
Curiosity is one of the most foundational things, one of the most incredible. We both share that idea. So if you know so much.

01:10:20 Speaker_03
Maybe what happens in a world where your curiosity is not there, you've got nothing to be curious about, wouldn't that be horrendous?

01:10:29 Speaker_06
Isn't this a property of what it means to be a finite life form that exists on a volatile planet, that there's hope. But if that is bypassed, why do we need to be anxious all the time? Why do we need to have hope?

01:10:46 Speaker_06
Why wouldn't we have a complete bliss, a complete connection to everything?

01:10:52 Speaker_03
You linked hope to anxiety. Is that right?

01:10:56 Speaker_06
I hope it works out. You're fighting the anxiety by having an optimistic outlook.

01:11:04 Speaker_03
I have hope. I think I was using it in a different way though. I was imagining hope as like, I don't know, excitement for what's beyond the horizon. Sure. So not driven This actually gets to the heart of what I think a scientist is, by the way.

01:11:21 Speaker_03
The difference between, not only a scientist, but let's say, what is a scientist? Or somebody just researching anything, really. Somebody who creates things. They're people who like to stand on the edge of the known.

01:11:33 Speaker_03
So they find it exhilarating but interesting almost in the context we're talking.

01:11:38 Speaker_03
It's almost one of the things that drives our existence is to stand on the edge of the known and peer into the unknown with excitement and curiosity because you can go over the horizon. And so that's the sense in which I'm using these terms.

01:11:56 Speaker_03
I'm saying that's one of the fundamentally most valuable things of being human, that there is an edge of the known. And so I would find it, I think, more terrifying to imagine that there was no edge of the known.

01:12:12 Speaker_03
that everything was known, then I would think existence is pointless. I personally would not find that, I wouldn't think I'd achieved nirvana. I would think there's no point, I would imagine.

01:12:24 Speaker_06
It's because you're existing within the framework of being a human being.

01:12:28 Speaker_06
And if we transcend the framework of being a human being, all these things we will come to realize, all these emotions and all these desires and need are just to motivate our survival.

01:12:40 Speaker_06
If we've gotten past that and we don't have a need for hope and we don't have curiosity because we have infinite information, we're not the same thing anymore.

01:12:53 Speaker_06
So all the things that motivate you and I, that make us fascinated by this, I was so excited to talk to you today. I'm like, Brian Cox is going to be here. We're gonna have fun like this is gonna be great.

01:13:02 Speaker_06
I'm gonna learn some stuff that all that innate curiosity that we have that's so rewarding as a human being is a part of being a human being and We think of it as being the only way to have meaning and happiness Yeah, the only way but that's because of the framework of being a human being.

01:13:20 Speaker_06
Yeah, if we transcend that the existence that we're all confined to, this temporary life form, check my heart rate, make sure I get electrolytes. We try to keep the body alive.

01:13:32 Speaker_06
If we transcend that completely, there's no need for all those things that are rewarding. We'll have a different kind of reward. We'll have a reward of infinite connection.

01:13:45 Speaker_03
I think we're trying to imagine what it's like to be God, aren't we?

01:13:49 Speaker_06
Yes, that's exactly what we're doing.

01:13:50 Speaker_03
That's quite hard.

01:13:52 Speaker_06
I have been thinking about this a lot, and I found out that somebody had already beat me to it, but the idea that the universe itself is God, that if you wanted something that creates, this is not to diminish any of the stories of the Bible, because I think a lot of those stories are

01:14:09 Speaker_06
These are ways that people tried to find meaning and probably had some baked in truths about being a human being and life and the existence.

01:14:18 Speaker_06
But that in compare, just the things that are miracles on earth, like a person coming back to life, is nothing in compared to a stellar nursery.

01:14:30 Speaker_06
It's like the scope of the universe itself, the real stuff that we can see, that is absolutely the creator of everything. Whether or not God created the universe, maybe. Maybe God created us. Maybe the Bible's true.

01:14:45 Speaker_06
whatever was done here is like a small bodega in comparison to some enormous, like the gigafactor that makes Tesla. There's a so much larger scale that absolutely created everything. Not only did it absolutely create everything, we know the process.

01:15:03 Speaker_06
We know how it happened. We know how stars are formed. We know how planets exist. We know how gravity is affecting the planets around them. We know so much about all this.

01:15:14 Speaker_06
We know so much about the process of going from single-celled organisms to multi-celled organisms and photosynthesis existing and that fungus exists in a completely different way.

01:15:23 Speaker_06
We know so much about all the things that absolutely came out of the universe itself. Why not assume the universe is God?

01:15:32 Speaker_03
I mean, it is in some technical sense. It has to be.

01:15:34 Speaker_06
It's everything.

01:15:35 Speaker_03
The universe is everything, including God, if God is a real thing. If you define God as the creator, then you're right.

01:15:43 Speaker_03
From some point that we don't understand, by the way, the Big Bang, we don't even understand whether that was the origin of the universe, by the way. We understand that something interesting happened.

01:15:52 Speaker_03
What is Sir Roger Penrose's... He has an infinite cyclical universe, and he's trying to answer questions about the very special state of the early universe and why it was the way that it was.

01:16:06 Speaker_06
So his model is an infinite contraction and expansion?

01:16:10 Speaker_03
It doesn't really contract. It's called conformal cosmology or cyclical conformal cosmology. So it's essentially that, and I don't fully understand it, and I have asked him about it with some colleagues actually.

01:16:26 Speaker_03
None of us understand what he was talking about. No, I don't think many of us understand what he... I mean, Roger Fenner is one of the greats, right? So you listen to him and take him very seriously.

01:16:36 Speaker_03
But I haven't met anyone who quite understands what he's talking about in that. But it doesn't recontract. It's not one of those models where the universe expands and then recontracts and bounces like that. It's not one of those.

01:16:51 Speaker_03
It's somehow, he argues, that when you get to what we usually call the heat death of the universe, where even the black holes have evaporated away, you have conditions that begin to look perhaps like an origin of the universe again.

01:17:05 Speaker_03
And I can't really fully explain it because I don't really understand what he's trying to say, right?

01:17:16 Speaker_06
So it's not a contraction, it's an infinite expansion and then some sort of a metamorphosis?

01:17:22 Speaker_03
Yeah, it kind of looks like conformal means there are no sort of distances or time measurements or anything in the universe. It kind of loses all sense of scale. And then you could reimagine that as looking somewhat like the beginning.

01:17:39 Speaker_03
It's something like that that he has in mind, but I really couldn't explain to you. I don't understand what he's proposing. Wow. But what it does tell you is that we don't know. why or how the universe got into the state that we call the Big Bang.

01:18:00 Speaker_03
So we don't know whether the universe existed before that. We have theories that it did, theories called inflation, which are very popular

01:18:08 Speaker_03
Theories, you'll find them in all the textbooks, which say that before the universe was hot and dense, which we used to call the Big Bang, space and time is still there, and the universe is expanding extremely fast. It's called inflation.

01:18:23 Speaker_03
And then that period draws to a close. And that expansion slows down and almost collapses and changes. And the energy that was driving the expansion gets dumped into space and changes and ultimately makes the particles out of which we are made.

01:18:39 Speaker_03
So that's actually the standard model of cosmology now. So we do have an idea that we redefine the Big Bang as the hot Big Bang. And it's not the origin of the universe in time. It's the end of inflation.

01:18:54 Speaker_03
And then you get the question, what is inflation? Did that have a beginning? And the answer is that in Einstein's theory alone, then yes.

01:19:03 Speaker_03
And Roger Penrose, actually, and Stephen Hawking proved this a long time ago, that just given Einstein's theory, you have this singularity, just like, kind of like the black hole singularity, but at the beginning of time.

01:19:15 Speaker_03
But we do know that when you put quantum mechanics in and add that in, then it gets messy and we don't really know what that means. And so Stephen Hawking had a thing called the No Boundary Proposals, all sorts. Basically the point is we don't know.

01:19:29 Speaker_03
So we don't know whether the universe had a beginning in time, I would say is the correct statement, as we are at the moment. It's part of the reason why, by the way, getting back to the black holes, they're important and interesting.

01:19:43 Speaker_03
Because the study of black holes and this idea of information and how does it get out, that's leading us to suspect that space and time themselves are not fundamental, but they emerge from something else.

01:19:56 Speaker_03
So just in the way that we've been talking about consciousness, emerging from this physical structure in our heads.

01:20:03 Speaker_03
So we don't know how it emerges, it's a very strange thing, but it emerges from this collection of atoms, right, in a particular pattern.

01:20:11 Speaker_03
Well, we think now, from the study of black holes, that space and time emerge from something else, which is kind of... One way to describe it is just a quantum theory. So in quantum computing terms, it would be just qubits.

01:20:27 Speaker_03
So a network of qubits entangled together, just like a quantum computer. Out of that we suspect that space and time might emerge.

01:20:38 Speaker_03
So surely we have to understand that process, and we don't really fully understand that, but we have glimpses of it in much more detail to start talking about the origin of time.

01:20:47 Speaker_03
Because in order to talk about the origin of time you have to know what it is. And we don't actually know what it is. When you say that, it sounds bizarre, doesn't it? How can you not know what time is?

01:20:58 Speaker_03
I think Einstein once said that it is the thing that you measure on a watch. But he said that as kind of almost a joke, because you assume in Einstein's theory there's a thing that the watch measures.

01:21:11 Speaker_03
But what actually it is, at the deepest level, is a good question. But it's interesting that the study of black holes is forcing us towards these theories.

01:21:21 Speaker_03
It's not that we had the theories, space and time, emerging from something and decided we could check it by thinking about black holes. It's come the other way around, really. So it's interesting. But that almost makes

01:21:36 Speaker_03
the universe look in some ways like a giant quantum computer, which is not to say that we live in a simulation, before you ask. But it just looks like there's a description of the universe that looks like a quantum computer type description.

01:21:54 Speaker_03
That doesn't have the concept of space or time in it.

01:21:59 Speaker_06
Is it possible that that is what it is and that the universe was created?

01:22:04 Speaker_06
And that, as we're talking about in super intelligent life forms, keep constructing better versions of itself and better versions of computers to the point where it can construct the universe itself.

01:22:19 Speaker_06
If we're seeing the code, if we're seeing the evidence, we're seeing something that mimics a quantum computer in the universe, we're like, ah, couldn't be that.

01:22:29 Speaker_03
It's interesting that you're right, and that's a good way of phrasing it, mimics or looks like a network of qubits. So it looks like some kind of quantum computing description is available to us, to the universe.

01:22:46 Speaker_03
But I don't think you can infer much from that. I mean, it just passes the question further back. As I said, we have never understood what it means for the universe to have a beginning. So we don't really know that. And so this is the same.

01:23:01 Speaker_03
I think it's just the same question. It's like, well, you ask, well, if it really is a network of qubits, it could have been there forever, that network of qubits. Actually, in quantum theory, it's more natural for it to be just eternal.

01:23:16 Speaker_03
And it's an interesting question. I once gave a talk, actually, at a conference of bishops. They were Catholic bishops. And they asked me to go and give a talk at their conference about cosmology.

01:23:26 Speaker_03
And so I gave the talk about cosmology, and they all listened. And we had a question thing afterwards. And I said to them, What happens if we discover the universe has always existed? Because it might have.

01:23:38 Speaker_03
We know there's a thing called the Big Bang, but it might have been something that happened in a pre-existing universe. Maybe that's eternal. What does that mean for your sort of picture of a creator?

01:23:49 Speaker_03
And I don't know, I was asking, it's a genuine question. And they really didn't, they thought it was a cool question and didn't have an answer, right?

01:23:59 Speaker_03
But I think that idea that, it's a question to you actually, are we more comfortable with the universe that began? Or would we be more comfortable with the universe that had always existed?

01:24:13 Speaker_06
I mean, comfortable is a weird word, because I always wonder if our whole desire to form the universe in terms of a beginning and an end is based on our own biological limitations.

01:24:23 Speaker_06
The fact that we have a birth and a death, we try to apply that to the universe itself, because we know that stars didn't exist, and they do. They burn out. We know planets lose their atmosphere.

01:24:36 Speaker_06
We know things change and all these things that so I think we think oh well this Sun's gonna die out the universe probably had a beginning to but why?

01:24:46 Speaker_06
What it there's no reason to think it did Like it's much more likely that it's always existed then it didn't exist and then it became out of what? Yeah, if the universe didn't exist, so there's nothing in the whole

01:25:02 Speaker_06
of observable everything, there's nothing. And then all of a sudden there's something? That seems less likely.

01:25:09 Speaker_06
It seems more likely that this whole idea of a birth and a death is just, we have this look, this way of looking at things because of our own limitations. Like, we think that everything has to have a beginning and an end.

01:25:21 Speaker_03
And you're right, I mean, you've had Sean Carroll on the show, because he always points out that this question, why is there something rather than nothing, presupposes that nothing is more likely than something.

01:25:35 Speaker_02
Whereas it might be the other way around.

01:25:38 Speaker_03
We don't even know that.

01:25:39 Speaker_06
But how does something come out of nothing?

01:25:41 Speaker_03
That's the big one. The history, I think historically you have, I think it's right to say that Einstein really felt, I think, that initially that an eternal universe was more natural.

01:25:54 Speaker_03
But it is also true to say that his theory, general relativity, really doesn't quite rule that out. But it's strongly suggestive of there being a beginning and or an end. So the theory itself, historically speaking, strongly suggests that.

01:26:13 Speaker_03
And so he came, changed his mind. And then we saw the universe was expanding. We observed that. And then we've now seen the oldest light in the universe, the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, which is the afterglow of the Big Bang.

01:26:24 Speaker_03
So we know that the universe was hot and dense 13.8 billion years ago. We have so much evidence for that, not least that we have a photograph of it, 380,000 years after the Big Bang. It's called the Cosmic Microwave Background. Let's see that.

01:26:37 Speaker_03
Let me see that photo. We have images of that. That's from the satellite called Planck, a European satellite, and also a satellite called COBE. So we have these images of the afterglow of the Big Bang.

01:26:46 Speaker_03
We also have theories that tell us about the abundance of chemical elements in the universe which match this perfectly. So there's multiple lines of evidence that tell us the universe was hot and dense.

01:26:56 Speaker_03
But none of that tells us that that was the beginning. I think that would be widely accepted. It's a beginning in Einstein's theory. If you just take general relativity, there's a singularity there at the beginning of time.

01:27:11 Speaker_03
We don't know what it is, but it's there. But it absolutely is true to say that we think that's not complete as a picture. So there it is. So that is light that was emitted about 380,000 years after the Big Bang.

01:27:28 Speaker_03
And the key thing, there's so many things to say about these images, but one thing is those colours.

01:27:35 Speaker_03
Correspond to regions of very slightly different density that we detected now in in the in the gases of the young universe Are you talking about the red blue? Yeah, the reds and blues those those are those as well.

01:27:47 Speaker_03
They're both both same So that that greeny one, well either that one or the one with the greeny blue that one that's the from the Planck satellite So those colors correspond to regions of different density.

01:28:00 Speaker_03
So in this young universe, 380,000 years after the Big Bang, that's only hydrogen and helium gas, basically, and a bit of lithium, some of the lighter elements, but basically hydrogen and helium.

01:28:13 Speaker_03
So you've got an almost smooth, almost featureless universe then. But these little density fluctuations are very important because as the universe expanded and cooled, they collapsed to form the galaxies.

01:28:28 Speaker_03
So without those ripples, without that pattern, we would not exist. Nothing of interest would exist. And so the question is, where did that come from, that pattern? It's fundamentally important.

01:28:41 Speaker_03
And the theory of inflation that I mentioned earlier, that there's this time before the universe got hot and dense, that theory predicted that pattern before it was observed. So this idea that you've got this very quickly stretching space.

01:28:57 Speaker_03
By the way, so the stretch, if I can remember the number, is if you consider two points in space during inflation, the distance between them was doubling. every 10 to the minus 37 seconds, which is 0.000001 of a second.

01:29:15 Speaker_03
So it's an incredible rate of expansion that draws to a close. So there's inflation there. So those theories predicted slight variations in the rate at which inflation stops.

01:29:30 Speaker_06
Does this work with Sir Roger Penrose's concept? I mean, is it possible that inflation is the far period of the expansion of the universe?

01:29:41 Speaker_03
I mean, it is. He doesn't like inflation as a theory. He doesn't? Oh, no.

01:29:49 Speaker_03
But it's right that our universe is accelerating in its expansion at the moment, which is one of the great mysteries that was discovered in the 1990s by a friend of mine, actually. Brian Schmidt got the Nobel Prize for this discovery.

01:30:03 Speaker_03
He told me once, I don't know if I told you this story before, but he told me that he'd made this measurement and it wasn't really, he was looking at supernova explosions, and he'd seen that the suggestion in the data was that the universe is accelerating in its expansion, not slowing down, but speeding up.

01:30:22 Speaker_03
in its rate of expansion. And no one was expecting it. So he thought it was just wrong. But he couldn't find anything wrong with his data. So he published it and thought, well, that's the end of my career. He was quite young.

01:30:35 Speaker_03
I think he might have been a postdoc. And he just published it. He thought, that's a good scientist. I don't think this is right. But I can't see anything wrong with it. I'll publish it. Someone else will tell me where my mistake was.

01:30:45 Speaker_03
And there was no mistake. And he won the Nobel Prize for that discovery. That's the 1990s. So this idea of the universe is accelerating in expansion. The way that it does that is really important. Is it going to carry on doing that?

01:31:00 Speaker_03
Is whatever's driving that expansion going to change in some way, which could actually recollapse the universe again? We give it a name, by the way, dark energy, this thing. But we don't know what it is. I think it's very fair to say.

01:31:14 Speaker_03
But it looks a bit like inflation, but it's way slower. So maybe they're linked. Maybe it's the same kind of thing. We don't really know. And so it's one of the great mysteries.

01:31:24 Speaker_03
But the universe, it looks like the universe is going to continue to expand forever and to continue to accelerate.

01:31:30 Speaker_06
Well, dark matter and dark energy, they're both very confusing.

01:31:34 Speaker_03
Yeah, dark matter's in some sense marginally less confusing in the sense that at least we have an idea of what it might be.

01:31:43 Speaker_03
Whereas dark energy, there are people listening to it, there are people working on it, so there are theories about what it might be. But I think it's further, it feels less explicable, given what we know, than dark matter.

01:31:56 Speaker_03
But we haven't discovered what, we think dark matter might be some kind of particle. that has got certain properties and doesn't interact very strongly. It interacts like neutrinos, basically, that you mentioned earlier.

01:32:10 Speaker_03
So it really doesn't interact very strongly. But we thought we might have seen those particles. We're looking for them.

01:32:15 Speaker_03
They would be passing through this room now, and so we could build a detector in here, and we do that, and we look for these particles. We haven't seen them. We thought we might make them at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

01:32:26 Speaker_03
I think many people thought that we'd see the signature of these things, and we haven't done. So it could be that we're not right with that picture.

01:32:34 Speaker_06
But that picture encompasses what percentage of the known universe?

01:32:38 Speaker_03
So it's about 5% matter, about 70% dark energy, and the rest, so 25% dark matter. So we're just less than 5% this. That's crazy. And the stuff we can see.

01:32:53 Speaker_03
So everything we can see in the sky, all the gas and the dust and the galaxies and the stars and the black holes, all those things, less than 5%. according to the standard model of cosmology.

01:33:06 Speaker_06
And so the other 95% is just like, who knows? Something else.

01:33:11 Speaker_03
Yeah. Wow. But those are models. I mean, it's important to say that it's interesting because until... So we have a hypothesis, which is strongly supported by lots of bits of evidence, that dark matter is some kind of particle.

01:33:27 Speaker_03
So that's the broadly, that's what you find in the textbooks. But it's true that until you find it, until you see it, then you haven't shown it to be correct. Are there alternative theories? There are. Any compelling?

01:33:42 Speaker_03
No, they all have problems and most of them have problems with that pattern, the CMV, the cosmic microwave background that we just saw.

01:33:50 Speaker_03
Because that pattern, what you're looking at actually in that pattern is acoustic, it's waves, sound waves essentially in the early universe that go through the plasma of the early universe.

01:34:03 Speaker_03
And they go out and we know what speed they go through that plasma. So it's almost like you're looking at a pond and you're throwing stones into the pond.

01:34:11 Speaker_03
and they all land in the pond at the same time and send ripples out, little circular ripples in the pond, and they all overlap. And that's what that pattern is. So we're looking at sound waves going through this plasma. And those theories

01:34:28 Speaker_03
require the dark matter. The dark matter fits well if it's in there, in this plasma, in this kind of soup, this subatomic particle soup that's the early universe. And the way the sound waves go through it fit that idea.

01:34:42 Speaker_03
So that's one thing, but the idea also came from looking at galaxies and how they rotate. and galaxies and how they bend light and deform space and time and how they interact together.

01:34:56 Speaker_03
So there's loads of different bits of information, observations of the universe from the cosmic microwave background all the way through to galaxies and the formation of galaxies and the theories that we have there that suggest there are these particles around that interact very weakly with light

01:35:12 Speaker_03
So they don't really interact with light at all, which is why we don't see them, which is why they're dark. That's just like a neutrino, right? So like heavy neutrinos.

01:35:20 Speaker_03
And actually there was a theory once that maybe they were heavy neutrinos, but that's kind of disfavored now. And so we have loads of kind of different bits that fit. This is how you do science.

01:35:32 Speaker_03
You start with a theory and you make a load of observations and you can infer things and you get a consistent picture, but Very importantly, until you find it, until you really find that particle, then you don't know. So that's a good question.

01:35:50 Speaker_06
What we don't know, just what we don't know is so fascinating. Just that aspect of it, that 95% of the universe is like, we're not really sure what it is.

01:35:58 Speaker_03
Yeah. And we've inferred it. So you might say, how do you know it's there? Which is a good question, right? I mean, if we have now detected this stuff, how do you know? And it's from Einstein's theory, really. So it's from gravity.

01:36:13 Speaker_03
It's from looking at the way that galaxies rotate, and the way that these sound waves move through the early universe, and the way that the universe expands. Because the way the universe expands is related to the stuff that's in the universe.

01:36:28 Speaker_03
So we can weigh the universe. and find out what kind of different things are in there by looking at the way it's expanded and how that expansion history has changed over time.

01:36:39 Speaker_03
So what you do with science, which is why it's, you know, it's true that you can criticize any one bit of it, and people will.

01:36:48 Speaker_03
So online, you'll see in the comments under this, there'll be people saying, what about this, what about this, what about this? And it's true that you can pluck away and pick away any piece of it.

01:36:57 Speaker_03
But the way it tends to work is when you have this kind of consensus view of something, it's because you have multiple observations that all fit a particular hypothesis.

01:37:08 Speaker_03
And by changing one of them, by changing the explanation of one of them, you tend to mess the whole other thing up. You mess the wider description of multiple phenomena up. You mess it all up.

01:37:20 Speaker_03
So it's quite hard to find other theories at the moment that will fit all of those different observations. I mean, another example would be the age of things. You know, it's interesting that you can look at, we can measure the age of the Earth, right?

01:37:38 Speaker_03
And you measure it from geological processes, radioactive dating and so on, and you can kind of measure the age of the Earth. You can measure the age of the sun in a different way.

01:37:47 Speaker_03
You can measure it by looking at, called helioseismology, so you can work out, you can measure how much helium is in the core of the sun. And the sun shines by making helium from hydrogen.

01:37:59 Speaker_03
So by measuring the amount of helium in the core, by looking at basically sound waves, it's like an earthquake, but sunquakes, you can measure how much helium's in there so you can get an estimate of the age of the sun.

01:38:09 Speaker_03
And then you can get an estimate of the age of the universe by measuring how it's expanding and using Einstein's theory.

01:38:15 Speaker_03
The fact that they all fit with the picture of a universe that's 13.8 billion years old, a sun that's 4.5 billion years old, a planet that's 4.5 billion years old, the fact that it all fits is quite an intricate model.

01:38:33 Speaker_03
And so you could say, well, I argue with the measurements of the age of the Earth. Maybe I don't like the radioactive dating or something, and people will say that. But the thing is, it's a consistent picture with multiple different observations.

01:38:48 Speaker_03
And same with dark matter. So the standard model of cosmology is you have, as I said, about 5% matter, 25% dark matter, 70% dark energy. It might be wrong, but it fits loads of different independent observations. So it's a consistent picture.

01:39:07 Speaker_06
So we just don't know what it is, but we're not very sure that it's a thing.

01:39:12 Speaker_03
Pretty sure.

01:39:14 Speaker_06
It could not be. Were any of the other theories, competing theories, were any of them compelling at all?

01:39:21 Speaker_03
There are theories that people try to build where you modify our theory of gravity. So many of these observations, not all of them, so the cosmic microwave background are different observations.

01:39:32 Speaker_03
But many of them depend on gravity and how gravity works, Einstein's theory of general relativity. So you could try to modify that theory to say, well, our observation's wrong, maybe.

01:39:46 Speaker_03
Because the way we measure how the expansion of the universe is, is to look at light from supernovas one way and see how it's stretched over time. Because the light, let's say you have a supernova

01:39:58 Speaker_03
and it happened a billion years ago, then the light has been traveling for a billion years across the universe. And so the universe has been expanding for a billion years, so the light will be stretched.

01:40:08 Speaker_03
And so you can measure how much stretch there is. You just measure the color of the light from the supernova.

01:40:15 Speaker_03
So you can argue that maybe if you go for light that's been traveling 12 billion years across the universe, then maybe there was something different. Maybe the light was emitted a bit different. Maybe the speed of light changes over time or something.

01:40:29 Speaker_03
So you can invent theories that would allow you to change the data. or the interpretation of the data.

01:40:38 Speaker_03
But what you always find, I think it would be fair to say, is that you can change a theory and explain one bit, but all the wheels come off the other bits. Got it. So that's why it's quite difficult.

01:40:51 Speaker_06
So the dark matter, dark energy theory is cohesive to all the other theories.

01:40:54 Speaker_03
Yeah, so it fits. But then there are some mysteries. Not least, what is this stuff? Right. And so until you know what it is, you don't have a complete theory.

01:41:05 Speaker_06
Well, that is one of the most fascinating things that 95% of the universe is like, who knows what it is?

01:41:09 Speaker_03
Yeah. Yeah. And so that's what I love about, one of the things I love about science is it often gets presented, you know, because I talk about science a lot in public, and it can often seem arrogant, I think.

01:41:23 Speaker_03
It can seem, you know, like these people are saying, well, this is the way the world is. And you might say, well, you know, how are you to say this?

01:41:31 Speaker_03
The thing I like about it, personally, and the reason for its success, is that really you have to be delighted when you're wrong. It's the key to science. It's been said many times, Richard Feynman, the great physicist, said it.

01:41:48 Speaker_03
If your goal is to understand nature, so that's what you want to do, So you've not got an ego or anything. You don't want to prove right. You just want to understand. Then being wrong.

01:42:03 Speaker_03
So if this idea of dark energy and dark matter turns out to be wrong, all scientists, or good scientists, will be absolutely delighted. Because it'd be tremendously exciting that we'd ruled out this picture. It'd be great to rule out this picture.

01:42:19 Speaker_03
So there isn't such a thing as dark matter. and dark energy. It's all nonsense. We're barking up the wrong tree, looking in the wrong direction. It's something else, which should be more wonderful, undoubtedly, than that theory that we have.

01:42:32 Speaker_03
So I think it's a humble pursuit, ultimately, science. And that's the reason for its success, because you're just trying to understand how things work. You're not trying to, you know, you shouldn't be anyway.

01:42:44 Speaker_03
Good scientists are not trying to be the person that got it right. You're not trying, you know, you're not trying to do it. There's obviously human failure. Everyone's got fragility and everyone's a human, you know, and ego.

01:42:58 Speaker_03
But ultimately, you're just trying to understand how things work.

01:43:00 Speaker_06
Yes. And that's a beautiful thing. And it's so important for everyone else that doesn't have the time. We need you doing that. It really does, in some way, give us comfort to have a better, more comprehensive view of what we're experiencing.

01:43:15 Speaker_06
And as technology expands, like I wanted to talk to you about the James Webb some of the discoveries But it sometimes it raises more questions and one of them was these galaxies that were formed That appeared to have been formed too quickly.

01:43:33 Speaker_06
Is that safe to say?

01:43:35 Speaker_03
Yeah, so we had one of the reasons we built that telescope was to what it does it because it can see very distant things and Because light travels at a finite speed the further out into the universe you look the further back in time you're looking

01:43:51 Speaker_05
Right.

01:43:51 Speaker_03
So because that can see things from which the light has been traveling for over 13 billion years, then you're seeing things as they were in the first billion years or a few hundred thousand years in the history of the universe, right, essentially.

01:44:06 Speaker_03
So, well, a few hundred million years, sorry, I should have said. So you're seeing the first galaxies form with that telescope, which is one of the reasons it was built.

01:44:17 Speaker_03
And the reason we wanted to see is because we don't fully understand that process.

01:44:21 Speaker_03
As I mentioned before, we don't really fully understand why they have black holes in them and it's something to do with their formation, but we don't understand it very well.

01:44:30 Speaker_03
So it's not surprising to me that when you build that instrument and collect light from the early universe, you see an early universe that's behaving in a different way to the way that you thought it behaved. And so indeed, yeah, we're seeing

01:44:46 Speaker_03
galaxies that formed earlier than you would have predicted. But that means that your model of the way the universe evolved is not quite right and that's not a surprise because we wouldn't have built the thing if we'd known everything.

01:45:03 Speaker_03
So I don't think there's any, I think it's fair to say there's nothing there that's absolutely completely destroys our picture of how the universe evolved from the cosmic microwave background that you saw in those images earlier.

01:45:15 Speaker_06
Does it add more complexity? Does it add more nuance?

01:45:18 Speaker_03
Yeah, I would say so. And I'm not an expert in that field, but my understanding is that it's interesting because we're having to refine and develop new models of the way that the galaxy is formed.

01:45:31 Speaker_03
And indeed, you're saying that it looks like the stars and the galaxies are present in the universe earlier than we might have expected. So it might be, it might be that you're seeing a hint of something really profound that we didn't understand.

01:45:44 Speaker_03
Or it might be that just the models need a bit of a tweak.

01:45:48 Speaker_06
So galaxies form quicker than we expected in the early stages of the universe. What are those red dots, the red dots that were observed Do you know what I'm talking about?

01:46:00 Speaker_03
In the images, the James Webb images of the early universe. Yeah, they're distant.

01:46:04 Speaker_06
That disappeared. Do you know what I'm talking about? No. I saved it because I knew that we were going to have to talk about this. It was... Jamie, I know we've talked about it before. Yeah, there it goes.

01:46:19 Speaker_06
Found hundreds of little red dots in the ancient universe. We still don't know what they are. Small galaxies either crammed with stars or they host gigantic black holes. The data astronomers have collected continues to puzzle them.

01:46:30 Speaker_06
So what is that all about? Do you know?

01:46:32 Speaker_03
I don't know. It says there that we don't know. I'm going to go with that. I mean, I think just speed reading that, it says a class of galaxies that

01:46:45 Speaker_03
So I suppose we're looking at a kind of galaxy, it seems we're looking at a kind of galaxy that we don't see today in the universe. Red and compact, visible only during about one billion years of cosmic history.

01:47:01 Speaker_03
So that would be, as I said, because we don't really understand the formation of the galaxies and these supermassive black holes, that's interesting because what you're seeing in the data is a kind of almost proto-galaxy, I suppose, these little tiny galaxies.

01:47:16 Speaker_03
That's what it seems to suggest. That's the first time I've seen that. Yeah, I think what we're seeing is that we don't understand how structures formed in the universe. We have a reasonable idea, but we don't understand the detail.

01:47:32 Speaker_03
And the more things like that you find, the more information you have to build models of how stuff formed.

01:47:38 Speaker_06
Do we have another, like, next-generation James Webb-type telescope that's even more efficient or more capable?

01:47:46 Speaker_03
There are, I mean, there are several sort of proposed observatories. And also, by the way, gravitational wave detectors, which, so we've got LIGO, which is on the ground. There are proposals to put one in space, which is called LISA.

01:48:02 Speaker_03
One of the proposals is called LISA. which is lasers between satellites, so you can have much bigger things. And the reason that's interesting is because there'll be gravitational waves from the Big Bang.

01:48:16 Speaker_03
So, you know, as you mentioned neutrinos, you've got neutrino observatories, which can observe neutrinos from the early universe. And you can see things. It's just like light in a way, but it gives you a different view.

01:48:29 Speaker_03
You mentioned earlier, it's a different way of looking at the universe. So the neutrinos will have information.

01:48:34 Speaker_03
Gravitational waves will have detailed information about the Big Bang itself, but we can't detect them at the moment because we can't detect those really tiny little ripples in space and time.

01:48:45 Speaker_06
That's what's so fascinating, because if they do launch this and they find new information, that's even more puzzling. And then you keep going further and further and further.

01:48:52 Speaker_03
And we want to know. It's like you said earlier. We're asking very deep questions about why the universe is the way it is. And maybe why there's a universe at all, in the sense that did it have a beginning? And if so, what does that mean?

01:49:07 Speaker_03
What does it mean for something like this to begin? Really, I find it... fascinating. And the most exciting thing of all is that we don't know. And that's so important, by the way.

01:49:20 Speaker_03
And just to reiterate, I think it's often missed when you're talking about the beauty of science and the value of science. It's almost not the knowledge. It's almost like the opposite of the knowledge. It's just this idea that

01:49:33 Speaker_03
I think, it goes back to what we were talking about earlier, I haven't really thought about this connection before, but it's that I was pushing back on you saying, I don't know, I'd like, what would it mean to know everything?

01:49:44 Speaker_03
I don't think I'd like that. And you were saying maybe you would, maybe that's what it means, nirvana, you know, maybe achieving enlightenment. That's what it means. But I find The most human I feel, I think, is when I'm on the edge of the known. Sure.

01:50:05 Speaker_03
So it's the fact that there are mysteries in the universe, profound mysteries, to me is one of the things that makes life worth living.

01:50:14 Speaker_06
Most certainly. As a human being, that's true.

01:50:17 Speaker_03
Yeah.

01:50:18 Speaker_06
My point is that I think eventually we're not going to be human beings.

01:50:22 Speaker_03
I'm sure you're right. I mean, what if we get past this little blip?

01:50:26 Speaker_06
Well, we're also in this weird depopulation stage where, you know, people are moving to urban areas. It's very strange. It's very weird because it doesn't seem like that because people are worried about overpopulation.

01:50:37 Speaker_06
But then you have a lot of the chemicals and the plastics and all the different things in people's bodies are interrupting our reproductive cycles.

01:50:46 Speaker_06
And you could see that eventually becoming an even bigger issue in the future if we continue to fuck up the world.

01:50:51 Speaker_03
We've got loads of problems. Loads of problems, which will all be fixed by AI. Well, there is an exciting future, isn't there? It's always exciting.

01:51:02 Speaker_03
I feel that we are kind of a fork in the road here, because as you said, there are tremendous challenges that we face, environmental challenges and so on.

01:51:09 Speaker_03
competition for resources, geopolitically the world looks rather, I think it looks as unstable as it was in the 1930s in some respects, so it's quite terrifying. But we have nuclear weapons now, so it's terrifying.

01:51:24 Speaker_03
But on the other side, as you said, we have not only AI and quantum computers, which are potentially profoundly powerful things,

01:51:33 Speaker_03
But also, the rockets that we have now, reusable rockets, we haven't talked about that, but I think it's an absolute game changer. It is now the case that we have cheap and reliable access to space.

01:51:48 Speaker_06
We should play that video of them catching it, because that is one of the most incredible achievements in human history.

01:51:56 Speaker_06
Elon Musk, unfortunately, is so polarizing to some people, particularly now because of the political cycle that we're in, that you don't appreciate what SpaceX just did. It did one of the most extraordinary things ever.

01:52:06 Speaker_06
They caught a rocket that's bigger than a fucking skyscraper. It's amazing. This is absolutely a feat of engineering that rivals almost anything human beings have ever done.

01:52:22 Speaker_03
Yeah, this is really important. This is so incredible. I think we'll remember that. Future generations will remember that.

01:52:30 Speaker_06
I thought it was CGI. I really did. I thought this was fake when I first saw it. I thought this was something that someone had made, and then I realized this was the actual video footage of it. I'm like, oh my God.

01:52:43 Speaker_03
That's the road to the stars, that right there, that moment.

01:52:47 Speaker_06
Tell me that doesn't remind you of the movie Contact.

01:52:50 Speaker_03
It does a bit, doesn't it? That does a lot. That didn't end well, though.

01:52:53 Speaker_06
No. Well, you know, neither did Apollo 1.

01:52:58 Speaker_03
And also, of course, Blue Origin are maybe not far behind. Right. I love that.

01:53:06 Speaker_06
Two private companies with billionaires at the helm that are out of their mind pushing spacecrafts.

01:53:11 Speaker_03
Let's go. And I get criticized for this quite a lot, and will no doubt after this interview, because I do think our future at some point is beyond Earth. It has to be, right? Obviously, logically, it is. But the question is when.

01:53:30 Speaker_03
And there are two things to say. One thing to emphasize, which I'm sure you'd agree with, is that I don't think anybody is suggesting that what we're able to do now is trash this planet and then move to another one. Right, of course.

01:53:43 Speaker_03
No one's saying that. That's way in the future.

01:53:45 Speaker_06
But there's things out of our control, like the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs.

01:53:49 Speaker_03
Yeah, well, that's in our control. I mean, we can move those now.

01:53:53 Speaker_06
Sort of.

01:53:54 Speaker_03
Well, not quite yet. Not yet. If it's coming right now. Not really. That's true. So we need that technology. So we're on the verge of having that technology. That would be nice. It was Carl Sagan, wasn't it?

01:54:04 Speaker_03
He said that if dinosaurs had a space program, they'd still be around. So it's their fault, in a sense. They didn't build rockets.

01:54:12 Speaker_06
Well, it's almost like nature realized that, look, with these giant lizards running around, people are never going to figure out how to make spaceships.

01:54:18 Speaker_03
Let's just reset.

01:54:21 Speaker_06
Send in the hard reset button.

01:54:23 Speaker_03
Yeah. But I think that idea, that basic idea, I interviewed Jeff Bezos once and he was fascinating. And he said to me, first of all, we need infrastructure in space.

01:54:36 Speaker_03
Because if you think about building Amazon, he said what I needed was two pieces of infrastructure, the postal service and the internet. And so they were provided and I could build my company.

01:54:47 Speaker_03
So I want to do that for the next generation of entrepreneurs in space. I don't know what they're going to do in space, but I would like the infrastructure to be there for them to do it. And that's really simple.

01:54:57 Speaker_03
And then he also goes on to say, of course, as we said before, the resources are up there. They're infinite. infinite resources, infinite energy effectively up there. And so the idea, he said to me, I want to zone the Earth residential.

01:55:12 Speaker_03
And people say, that's ridiculous. What are you talking? But how ridiculous is it when you see that, when you see the fact that for the first time we have launch vehicles that really should be able to launch almost anything we want.

01:55:26 Speaker_03
So the idea that we can build infrastructure in space and then of course build bases on the moon and then ultimately on Mars and then beyond, that's a lot closer now.

01:55:36 Speaker_06
Let's look at that and say, what is that? A hundred and how many years from Wilbur and Orville Wright? Yeah, it's a century. A hundred and what?

01:55:44 Speaker_03
120-ish, is it?

01:55:46 Speaker_06
Yeah, yeah, that's crazy. Yeah. So you go from this goofy, like flexible sort of airplane looking thing that no one's going to fly across the Atlantic and to catching rockets with a giant like hand the robot clamp. Yeah.

01:56:03 Speaker_06
That's insane that happens over such a short period of time. To go from that to Blue Origin is insanity in such a short period of time.

01:56:15 Speaker_03
So I think we're on the 1906. So we're on the verge of a revolution in many fields. My worry is that we're also seeing an increase in political instability. And so I think most people would agree, a very dangerous moment.

01:56:33 Speaker_03
And the question is how to get to that future. And that future that you talked about, this wonderful future that we have, might be 10 or 20 years away, but it might be an eternity away if we get the next few years wrong.

01:56:47 Speaker_03
So I'm concerned that this, we don't know how to build a bridge to that future that we should see in our lifetime. We should see this future beginning to unfold before us. How do we get there?

01:57:02 Speaker_06
Well, we have to keep it out of the hands of the military-industrial complex. We have to stop what's going on in the world, these insane conflicts.

01:57:10 Speaker_06
And if we don't, and they escalate, Iran gets a nuclear weapon, Israel uses it in Iran, Russia uses it in Ukraine. We have World War III, and I'm sure you're aware of what Einstein said about World War IV.

01:57:23 Speaker_06
That World War III, I don't know what weapons they'll use, but in World War IV, it'll be rocks and sticks. And we're not that far away from that.

01:57:31 Speaker_06
If you could imagine living in Hiroshima the day before the bomb, not having any idea that anything like that could ever even possibly happen. You're just a regular person walking around, and all of a sudden, everything is obliterated.

01:57:45 Speaker_06
And you realize we're in a new era of destruction, where you can

01:57:49 Speaker_03
And what's interesting to me is I've got interested in Oppenheimer's writing post-war. And I've been interested in it. The BBC asked me to look at, there's a thing called the BBC Reith Lectures that are very famous in the UK.

01:58:03 Speaker_03
And every year someone gives these lectures after Lord Reith, who founded the BBC. And Oppenheimer did them in 1953, I think it is, 53 or 54. And they were considered a failure because no one understood what he was talking about.

01:58:19 Speaker_03
But in there, he was concerned with the fact, of course, that he felt he delivered the means by which we would destroy ourselves.

01:58:28 Speaker_03
And he felt our technology, our scientific know-how, exceeded our wisdom and our political skill, which is arguably true. So he thought in the 50s, he couldn't see how we'd avoid destroying ourselves.

01:58:40 Speaker_03
But he thought about it a lot, feeling partly personally responsible for it.

01:58:44 Speaker_03
And he describes this, how if there's any lessons that science teaches us, that the exploration of nature teaches us, that we could move into other fields, that we could transfer into politics, for example.

01:59:02 Speaker_03
And one of them is this picture that complex systems are complicated. So he's talking about looking at quantum mechanics, for example, and it gets complicated. And you say, what is an electron? It's this thing.

01:59:16 Speaker_03
It's a particle-like, point-like thing or a big extended wavy thing. What is it? It behaves in all these strange ways. We don't really have the language or the mental capacity to picture it.

01:59:26 Speaker_03
And so he said any attempt to say this thing is this or it is that, it is like this thing, it is doomed.

01:59:36 Speaker_03
What you have to understand is that you have to develop this rather complex and nuanced picture of the way that nature works and quantum mechanics is a good example. But he said so it is with human societies. So in a society What is it?

01:59:51 Speaker_03
It is at one level a load of individuals, like little particles, and they have their own needs and desires and they have their views and strongly held views and so should they by the way.

02:00:02 Speaker_03
There's a great quote from I think early 60s from Oppenheimer where he says that to be a person of substance you need an anchor. So you need to believe things and you need to argue for things. You need to take positions. You have to have a morality.

02:00:17 Speaker_03
You have to have a politics, right, basically. Otherwise, you're not a person of substance. But he says at the same time, of course, you have to recognize there's a society. So there are lots of people with anchors.

02:00:30 Speaker_03
And you might strongly disagree with that anchor. And they might be wrong. Their anchor might be nonsense. But the challenge of politics is to avoid war.

02:00:44 Speaker_03
I read somewhere recently, someone said, I can't remember who it was, but said that democracy is a technology to avoid civil war. That's what it is.

02:00:53 Speaker_03
So somehow you've got to understand that whilst you have your, and should have, your firmly held position, you have to find a way, and it feels almost contradictory, you have to find a way of understanding that the society as a whole is a complex mixture of all these different little particles with their own anchors and their own positions.

02:01:17 Speaker_03
And what is the goal? So it is the goal. It often feels to me that politics at the moment, the goal is to win an argument. It often feels like to convince enough people that your view is the right view. And that obviously is part of democracy, right?

02:01:34 Speaker_03
It's the way it works, right? You argue for your position, and then you get four or five years to do your thing, and then someone else can take over.

02:01:42 Speaker_03
But also, I think the thing we're missing at the moment is that perhaps more fundamental function of democracy, which is to avoid war. Because if you can avoid war, especially with the power that we have now, you have the time to sort the rest out.

02:01:59 Speaker_03
But if we can't avoid war, we don't. And Oppenheimer wrote that he knew that in the 50s. And it feels to me more that we're back full circle now. It feels to me we've almost forgotten. We seem to have forgotten that the primary

02:02:19 Speaker_03
The primary function of democracy is not to ensure that your side wins. The primary function of democracy is to ensure there's a chance for the other side to win at some point in the future. Yes. And yeah, that's it really.

02:02:39 Speaker_03
That's what I would like to say.

02:02:40 Speaker_06
No, it's completely accurate. And the problem with our version of democracy is that it's been captured by money. So there's interests beyond the will and the needs of the people.

02:02:54 Speaker_06
And those interests often are contrary to the will and the needs of the people. And as long as they can keep from it falling into complete total catastrophe, and continue to profit off of the global chaos. They do.

02:03:09 Speaker_06
It's just there's too much money involved in politics and lobbyists and special interest groups and people influencing the media.

02:03:18 Speaker_06
They've distorted reality to the point where the general citizen doesn't really have a nuanced understanding of why these conflicts are taking place in the first place, and why all the money is going over to these places, and what is being done to mitigate any of these issues.

02:03:35 Speaker_06
And everyone feels helpless. And that helps them continue to do what they're doing and continue to reap profits. democracy in the sense of how it was probably originally established or originally thought of.

02:03:50 Speaker_06
They never thought they were going to have corporations. Corporations weren't even a thought. It wasn't even an idea.

02:03:56 Speaker_06
So I never thought you'd have these, not just corporations, but corporations that are essentially in charge of an enormous percentage of the information that gets distributed online. You know?

02:04:08 Speaker_06
And you see how organizations, government organizations, can conspire to limit the amount of information people have access to. And they can do it through very sneaky ways.

02:04:19 Speaker_06
Like, I don't know if you're aware of what they've done in Canada, but in Canada now, you are no longer able to share links to news stories on social media.

02:04:29 Speaker_06
And the way they snuck that in is by saying that these media corporations, whether it's Meta or Twitter, X, whatever, they have a responsibility to pay the people that are making these stories.

02:04:47 Speaker_06
And so by this little sneaky little loophole, they've essentially put a stop on the free flow of information in Canada on social media. It's very, very disturbing and very dystopian.

02:04:59 Speaker_06
I have some friends that just went up there and they're like, it's so confusing. because people didn't know it was going to happen before it happened, and then it happened, and now everyone's kind of a little out of the loop up there.

02:05:10 Speaker_06
You can't even share a link, which doesn't make any sense, because say if there's a New York Times article and I want to share it with you on Twitter, All I'm doing is driving more traffic to the New York Times website. It's not hurting them.

02:05:25 Speaker_06
In fact, it's promotion. It doesn't make any sense that it would somehow or another, because these companies aren't paying.

02:05:32 Speaker_06
So the idea is that X, because the profits that they get through advertising is all based on engagement, that there's engagement.

02:05:39 Speaker_06
that sends people to this, and so they're profiting from it, and that profit should be shared with the media company, whether it's Los Angeles Times or whatever. That's crazy, because it's a two-way street. It's promotion.

02:05:52 Speaker_06
So many more people are going to read a New York Times article if it becomes viral on Twitter.

02:05:57 Speaker_03
This just makes sense. It's clear. What does seem to be generally true is that we haven't, as a society... It says it was just on Facebook.

02:06:05 Speaker_06
Is that true? We, um, I don't know if it's just on Facebook. It says it was Meta's ban. Well, I'm, I'm, I'm just curious. Is it, see if it's the case, well, Dunker was saying it's social media in general, because he was just there.

02:06:20 Speaker_03
I mean, what I think is generally true is that we haven't yet adapted to the internet. Yes. Just the internet. Yes. Because it's only, as you said, in the great sweep of human history. Right. And it's only been used by people for 10 years. Yeah.

02:06:36 Speaker_03
And it's a couple of decades. It's been influential. Yeah. So I think it feeds. It's another of those problems we face now, what we talked about, this bridge to this tremendously bright future that we have.

02:06:49 Speaker_03
One of the pillars of that bridge that we need to strengthen is how to deal with this thing that we've only had for a couple of decades. It's clear.

02:07:00 Speaker_03
People again will be listening to this and they'll have different views on the way that things happen on the internet and regulation and so on. But I think what everyone would agree on is we haven't got it right yet.

02:07:09 Speaker_03
So we don't know the way that it's influencing our, changing our democracies. Let's just use a non, you know, it might be changing them for the better, it might be changing them for the worse.

02:07:20 Speaker_03
But the way it is changing them, I don't think is fully understood.

02:07:23 Speaker_06
Well, not just that. It's being manipulated by governments. Governments have troll farms where they just attack certain sensitive political issues and they make polarizing statements and crazy claims.

02:07:36 Speaker_06
And you go to that website or you go to that Twitter page and you realize, oh, this isn't a real person. This is just like some bot somewhere. And a former FBI analyst made an estimate of 80%.

02:07:51 Speaker_06
He thinks 80% of all the accounts, and this was around the time Elon was buying it, who knows where it's at now, 80% were fake. And this is one of the sticking points of the argument that Elon said.

02:08:02 Speaker_06
It was when he was buying Twitter, they were telling him that it was only 5%. 5% were fake. He said, well, show me your data. And the data they showed him was only a random 100 accounts. And he's like, this is not sufficient.

02:08:13 Speaker_06
I want to see all of your data. And it became this big issue. And that's when he tried to get out of the deal. And then they took him to court. And then he wound up buying it. But that was a big part of it. Like, how much of this is even real?

02:08:24 Speaker_06
Like, I see arguments online where people take these crazy inflammatory positions, like, just insulting and attacking people that believe one thing or another thing.

02:08:33 Speaker_06
And I'm like, how much of this is, like, instigated by China or Russia or Iran or some other foreign country? And they're doing it through these troll farms, which we absolutely know exist. And I'm sure the United States has them as well.

02:08:49 Speaker_03
And I don't know what the answer is. I mean, the way I do it, because obviously I'm on Twitter X, and so the way that I do it is you can tell, I think, by someone's timeline usually.

02:09:01 Speaker_03
Because my basic rule of thumb is that if you look at someone's timeline, and it's all political, Right. I just ignore them. Because a normal person's timeline, if I look at your timeline, for example, you look at mine, some of it's just silly stuff.

02:09:17 Speaker_03
Right. Some of it's retweeting sports stuff or sign stuff or whatever it is. I like aeroplanes. So a lot of my stuff is retweeting stuff about aeroplanes, right? Or whatever it is. So I think you can see a real person by seeing a breadth.

02:09:33 Speaker_03
in the things that they retweet or whatever. And so I tend to ignore and mute at the minimum the people who are just single issue. And usually what you find, by the way, is that They're not a single issue.

02:09:48 Speaker_03
I can just about understand it if someone's single issue focused on a single thing. But they're just a generic kind of political position. So you'll see an account, and all it does is promote divisive issues. You can see them a mile off, I think.

02:10:04 Speaker_03
So then it comes back to how do you deal with it? And my sense would be your sense. It's hard to legislate around conversation, isn't it? Yeah. So what do you do? I suppose you could argue it's education, ultimately.

02:10:19 Speaker_03
Ultimately, everything comes back to education. A democracy requires an educated population. Right. And the tools, you have the mental tools. to deal with this sort of new world of information.

02:10:34 Speaker_06
And that's, I think that's something that we should probably be teaching to children is how to navigate social media and how to navigate influence and how to navigate other people's opinions of you and how to navigate like online bullying, how to, how to avoid, there's so much anxiety that's attached to social media now too.

02:10:50 Speaker_06
And so many people engage in arguments with it like all day long. I think it's a primary source of mental illness for a lot of people, or at least an accelerant of mental illness.

02:11:00 Speaker_06
And we don't have an education as to how to manage that and what that means to you. And the addiction that people have to social media and addiction people have to their smartphones in general is probably underappreciated.

02:11:15 Speaker_06
It's probably a much more significant impact on overall health than we think because there's so much. First of all, we're not supposed to have access to eight billion people's worth of bad news.

02:11:28 Speaker_04
No.

02:11:29 Speaker_06
That's not good. That's not a perspective enhancer. And we're essentially inundated with the things that will scare the shit out of us the most, which is 8 billion people's problems.

02:11:38 Speaker_06
Whatever is happening in the world that's terrible, you're going to hear about it first. And that's going to be the things that trend the most. And it gives you this very bizarre bias towards what's actually happening in the world.

02:11:49 Speaker_03
Yeah. Yeah. Isn't it a big problem?

02:11:53 Speaker_06
It's a big problem because it's new, and we weren't prepared for it when it hit. It's like a flood happening, and you're like, OK, we've got to figure out how to get all the water out of here. Like, this is nuts. This place is flooded.

02:12:03 Speaker_06
And we're essentially in the middle of the flood, this social media, online-influenced flood, and we haven't really shored up our basement yet. We don't really know how to protect ourselves from it.

02:12:15 Speaker_03
But we can be optimistic. Yes. Because we're both optimists, I think, ultimately.

02:12:19 Speaker_06
Yes, yes. I'm very optimistic.

02:12:20 Speaker_03
Because of the things we've talked about today.

02:12:23 Speaker_06
Well, I also think that because I'm, and I think you are also, successful at navigating that world without it killing you. Like, I can navigate the world of social media.

02:12:33 Speaker_06
And I can, like you said, you look at someone's timeline and see that, oh, this is crazy. And you have your own objective understanding of the world to a point where you can see where someone's being ridiculous.

02:12:44 Speaker_06
But some people just aren't that good at that.

02:12:47 Speaker_06
They're not educated in that maybe they haven't been around Enough people that are critical thinkers and they don't know how to approach things from they just look at things like what am I supposed to believe?

02:12:57 Speaker_06
Am I a good person if I believe this am I a good person if I argue against that I'll do this I'll do that and these are not like well thought out actions and

02:13:06 Speaker_03
I do understand, though, that you and I, you know, we're in a good position, personally. This confidence comes with some degree of success and you can put things in perspective. And as you said, I often think, actually, I see people who struggle

02:13:28 Speaker_03
When they become well-known for the first time, for example. I mean, I remember when I became, quite late in life, became well-known as a public figure.

02:13:38 Speaker_03
I did a series on the BBC in 2009 or 2010 called Wonders of the Solar System, and suddenly I was well-known.

02:13:46 Speaker_03
And I find it very difficult to navigate and fortunately I had the support structures and people around me and I could navigate it and you come to terms with it and you learn how to do it, but it's a process, isn't it? So I think it's the same.

02:14:00 Speaker_03
One of the problems I think with social media is you can become very well known. very quickly. Often for something that you kind of said in a clumsy way sometimes, you know.

02:14:09 Speaker_03
And I think it's probably almost impossible to navigate that as just a person who just suddenly is exposed to that glare of publicity and becomes a public figure, sometimes a hate figure. Yes. Overnight.

02:14:26 Speaker_06
Well, it seems particularly difficult for people that didn't ever anticipate it, like the Jordan Petersons of the world, people that became quite prominent, like, in their late 40s. He's an academic.

02:14:36 Speaker_03
I mean, you know, and yeah, I mean, that's what I always did. I was an academic and then had success on television. And it wasn't in a controversial area, right? It was about planets and the solar system and astronomy.

02:14:50 Speaker_03
But even then, I found it difficult initially to navigate through that world. And you get used to it eventually.

02:14:58 Speaker_06
It's a very bizarre drug. That's what fame is. It's a very bizarre alternative state of consciousness where everybody knows who you are and you don't know them. And no one's really ready for that. And no one knows what it is until you experience it.

02:15:12 Speaker_06
Everybody thinks they want it until they get it. And once you get it, you're like, oh my God, this comes with so much scrutiny. This comes with so much hate.

02:15:18 Speaker_06
You're just dealing with so many mentally ill people that are tweeting at you that the world's flat. They're just angry. There's a lot of really messy people out there.

02:15:28 Speaker_03
I do, yeah. There are still, I mean, the number of people who, when I, so I did that, the rocket cat, the Starship, as you said, the most incredible thing. I just retweeted that and said, brilliant engineering.

02:15:41 Speaker_03
The number of tweets I got back saying that space is, I don't understand what it means. Space is fake. I don't even know what that means. But I got quite a lot of it, you know, it's fake.

02:15:51 Speaker_06
How can it be fake?

02:15:53 Speaker_06
I went down a hashtag space is fake rabbit hole one night online and it has something to do with biblical stuff because they think that there's a firmament that's over the earth and they think that the lights are dangled in the sky.

02:16:10 Speaker_02
Oh, it's that. So it's just a dome.

02:16:12 Speaker_06
Yeah, the earth is a disk. And you can't get through the firmament. And there's like an ice wall. And that's why you can't travel around.

02:16:19 Speaker_03
And obviously, when you go, OK, so let's assume that's true. Let's assume he's right.

02:16:26 Speaker_06
All the astronomers, all the astrophysicists, all NASA, China, every space agency, they're all in cahoots, and no one spilled the beans.

02:16:36 Speaker_03
But the thing I've never understood, and I've asked this, in my early days on Twitter, I made the mistake of asking sometimes, and now I don't reply at all. Obviously, you learn that. What possible advantage could there be? What's the answer?

02:16:54 Speaker_03
I think they think that it's just a scam. So yeah, SpaceX are just like a scam or something. So they're just taking all this money for launching satellites.

02:17:05 Speaker_03
So again, it's a very complicated scam because they're getting it off, you know, communications satellites.

02:17:10 Speaker_06
They should try Starlink. Starlink. They should try it so they know space is real.

02:17:15 Speaker_03
They probably think it's just deflecting off the dome or something, I don't know.

02:17:19 Speaker_06
I guess, but the crazy thing is the idea that everybody's in cahoots, that all these competing countries decided to all lie together, and yet there's no record of it. There's no record of communications.

02:17:36 Speaker_06
There's no people that rebel against this idea and go, this is madness. Everything's round.

02:17:41 Speaker_03
Look at the sky. The fundamental thing as well, the fundamental misconception these people have is they assume that there's a competence. there in government.

02:17:51 Speaker_03
Anyone who's interacted with government, I speak of my own country, I've interacted with the government.

02:17:57 Speaker_03
The idea that they're competent enough to do this tremendously intricate scam, they can't even, in my country, they can't even make the trains run. It's very basic. So I think it's this assumption that there's some kind of

02:18:14 Speaker_03
underlying competence to the world.

02:18:16 Speaker_06
Yes, not just competence, but unbelievably calculating manipulation.

02:18:21 Speaker_03
Yeah, I just don't think that the world is run by people who are smart enough to do that.

02:18:26 Speaker_06
I mean, there's certainly conspiracies that are real, but that's just preposterous. But it's also, it's just like this, again, it's attached to a weird religious thing.

02:18:34 Speaker_06
They do believe in the literal interpretation of some of the stories in the Bible, and that's somehow or another that's been attached to the firmament. But that's one of the problems with sort of

02:18:47 Speaker_06
When you can, especially if you're an articulate person, and even if you make some fake documentary and you attach a bunch of fake facts to it, if it's compelling and no one like you stops and goes, hold on, that's not how it works, this is how we know this, this is why the planets are round, this is how we know, this is what Bode's Law is, and you start laying out what,

02:19:14 Speaker_06
thousands of years of research and discovery has led us to. This is not like just based on a whim.

02:19:21 Speaker_06
There's like a lot of information and the idea that all of that information is a vast conspiracy to hide the fact that God is real and that the firmament covers the earth and earth exists in the center of the universe and was created by God and space is fake.

02:19:37 Speaker_03
Okay, well, I've learned something I didn't know, because I didn't know the space is fake thing was linked to that, so that's... It's a very religious thing.

02:19:45 Speaker_06
Yeah, at the root of all the flat earth stuff is the firmament.

02:19:49 Speaker_06
The root of all the flat earth stuff is, it's based on some very bizarre interpretation of biblical... I don't remember the exact depiction of the firmament and how God describes it in the Bible, but

02:20:05 Speaker_06
They believe that that's what we're looking at, that there's like a glass, like a cookie dome, like a plate of cookies with a glass dome on it.

02:20:15 Speaker_03
But going back to what we said earlier, if that was the way that nature is, that's the way. We would tell you. I'd love it.

02:20:22 Speaker_06
Well, not only that, but everyone would be talking about how crazy Earth is in comparison to all the other planets. Turns out Earth is actually flat. Like that would not be something anybody would hide. I'd like to find that out.

02:20:33 Speaker_03
Because you become tremendously, you know, I mean, what a great discovery.

02:20:40 Speaker_06
But it isn't. But people have like a natural inclination to uncover vast conspiracies. And I think that's one of the weirder ones that people gravitate to. But again, I really think it has something to do with blind belief in religious writings.

02:20:59 Speaker_06
And not just that, but erroneous interpretations of religious writings.

02:21:04 Speaker_06
You know, when you're dealing with something that was originally written in ancient Hebrew and then translated to Latin and then to Greek, a lot of that gets lost in the translation. A lot of it gets like, you had a thousand years of oral tradition.

02:21:18 Speaker_06
I've always wondered, at the beginning of the Bible, in the beginning there was light. I wonder if that was like someone trying to figure out the Big Bang.

02:21:27 Speaker_06
I mean, it doesn't make sense that they would have a concept of it back then, but it also doesn't. Maybe that's something like we inherently know is that there was an event.

02:21:39 Speaker_06
Maybe the echoes of that event are almost something that we just perceive because we just think of it as being a thing.

02:21:47 Speaker_03
What is it? It starts with, in the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth, and the earth was that form of void, and darkness was on the face of the deep. I love that. It's a great line. Well, it's amazing.

02:21:57 Speaker_06
Darkness was on the face of the deep. It's amazing as a piece of literature.

02:22:01 Speaker_03
Yeah, and it's the deep. I think I read somewhere that I was talking to a friend of mine who's It seems to come from the Egyptian creation myth, I think. I might be wrong there. It was very much to do with the Nile and the waters.

02:22:15 Speaker_03
And you find that in many religions, that there's water when things emerge out of the waters. And you see that in Genesis, that echo of it. Darkness was on the face of the deep. And then there's light after that. So I don't know.

02:22:28 Speaker_03
I'm not a biblical scholar.

02:22:30 Speaker_06
I'm fascinated by it the same way I'm fascinated with science, because I think it's people that lived thousands of years ago trying to make sense of things.

02:22:39 Speaker_03
That's it. That's ultimately it, isn't it?

02:22:40 Speaker_06
And very little information.

02:22:42 Speaker_03
That's what we talked about earlier. To me, that's one of the defining characteristics of being human, trying to make sense of the world.

02:22:50 Speaker_03
And that's why, by the way, I don't like to get into sort of arguments with people who have different views, different belief systems. My sort of baseline position is if you're curious, and you're interested, and you want to know how things happened.

02:23:10 Speaker_03
That, to me, is common ground that we can share. The people I don't really understand are people who are not curious and don't have questions. I think Carl Sagan wrote a great book called The Demon-Haunted World, Science of the Candle in the Dark.

02:23:23 Speaker_00
You know that book?

02:23:24 Speaker_03
Where he says that story about a taxi driver when he got in the taxi at the start, and he's asking him all these questions about Atlantis or whatever it is, and he realizes He doesn't think this guy is an idiot. He thinks this guy has a curious mind.

02:23:40 Speaker_03
He's someone who should be, we can have a wonderful conversation. But he also says that he felt that he'd perhaps been failed. by society, by education, in that his curiosity had not been somehow channeled to the real mysteries.

02:23:58 Speaker_03
But it got sidetracked into all this strange stuff.

02:24:01 Speaker_06
I think the real, the academic mysteries are intimidating to some people, because they don't think of themselves as being intelligent. So then they gravitate towards like YouTube mysteries.

02:24:09 Speaker_03
Simpler, simpler things.

02:24:13 Speaker_06
more controversial so that it puts them in a select club of people who actually know what's going on, where people love stuff like QAnon, they love stuff like that, where they're in the know of some top secret information.

02:24:25 Speaker_03
And by the way, that idea that I think one of the problems we have communicating science and getting young people into science is that idea that you have to somehow be really clever. which is not true at all.

02:24:39 Speaker_03
It goes back to what I said before that it's more you have to be comfortable with not knowing. So that's a big step to say I'm not going to guess and I'm okay if you ask me a question about the origin of the universe. The answer is don't know.

02:24:56 Speaker_03
So, I think it's, if, as you said, if you can be comfortable with not having to have a simple, intelligible explanation for something, then you'll make more progress in life. But it's quite difficult.

02:25:14 Speaker_03
So it's easy to just go, oh, there's a simpler that thing. Yes. So there's a simpler explanation there.

02:25:19 Speaker_06
Well, it's also very difficult for people because they attach their ego to ideas. And once you have set an idea, then you are attached to that idea and you defend that idea. It's a real problem.

02:25:29 Speaker_03
That's so important. Yeah.

02:25:31 Speaker_06
Ideas are just ideas and you are you and the way you interact with ideas shows your intelligence you can be incorrect People are often incorrect.

02:25:39 Speaker_06
Yeah, but if you argue for something that you know is incorrect because you don't want to lose That's that's bad for everybody.

02:25:46 Speaker_03
Yeah, I mean I can't go back to Richard Feynman. He said What did the great there's a great essay? I probably talked to you about before called the value of science that you wrote 1955 you can get it online and

02:25:57 Speaker_03
And in there, he says, the most valuable thing is scientists bring this transferable skill to life. And it's that you have a great experience with being wrong. So nature is brutal.

02:26:09 Speaker_03
And most of the time, you come up with some really great theory, and you're really sure about it. You do the experiment, and you're just wrong. And so you get so used to it that you come to enjoy it. because you're learning, but it's a process.

02:26:23 Speaker_03
That's why science is so important in schools and experiments are so important.

02:26:28 Speaker_03
It's not that you just swing a pendulum and there's nothing interesting about that, but it's just that you're learning that there's a gold standard of knowledge, which is nature.

02:26:40 Speaker_03
And as Feynman said, it doesn't care who you are or what your title is or what your name is, or you may have been elected with 99% votes in whatever it is. It doesn't matter. Nature just doesn't care.

02:26:53 Speaker_03
And so the more you interrogate nature, even as a kid at school with a little experiment with a battery and a light or something, you learn that there's a reality and you learn what it takes to acquire reliable knowledge about the world.

02:27:09 Speaker_03
and reliable knowledge is important. How do we form a view of, and it can be very important questions. It can be questions like, what happens if we carry on putting greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, for example?

02:27:24 Speaker_03
Whatever your politics are, it's a legitimate question, a good question. Are we going to influence the climate if we carry on doing this? And so how do we then address that as a question?

02:27:37 Speaker_03
You can't do it by going back to your political affiliation or your belief system. You've got to try and understand this complicated system, which is the climate of a planet.

02:27:47 Speaker_03
So you make measurements of the thing and you build some models and computer models. And there's a very famous saying that all models are wrong because they're models. But they're the best you can do. So you have a go.

02:27:59 Speaker_03
You come up with some information and a model that kind of works, and you say, well, this is the best version of our knowledge at the time. And then you can try to act on it, and you refine the model. And that's the process.

02:28:12 Speaker_03
But that idea of how can we acquire reliable knowledge that we can trust, which might not be right, and is very likely not completely right, but it's the best we can do at the time. That's what my definition of science would be.

02:28:29 Speaker_03
It's nothing more or less than the best picture we can manage of how nature works at any given moment. It's not a truth.

02:28:40 Speaker_03
It's not something by its very nature, the way that science works, is it may be shown to be incorrect or not particularly great a model tomorrow. But I would define it as the best we, and by we I mean our civilization, the best we can do.

02:28:56 Speaker_03
And so we act on that. I don't see any other way to act as a civilization other than with the best we can do. It's the best we can do.

02:29:05 Speaker_06
Yeah. And that term reliable information is so important because people want to leap to conclusions to try to like tie something up neatly when reliable information might not be available.

02:29:17 Speaker_06
Like reliable information is the number one reason why I never take the UFO thing seriously. I am so all in that there must be life out there. It just makes sense. It makes sense.

02:29:27 Speaker_06
I know the Fermi paradox with notwithstanding, but I think if you just take into account the sheer numbers of planets that we're looking at, the possibility of something achieving some sort of advanced life seems very high.

02:29:40 Speaker_06
But no reliable information. Zero. Not one thing that I've ever seen. I'm like, oh, that's for sure real. Not one. Every sighting, everything. I'm like, how do we not know?

02:29:50 Speaker_06
How do we know if there's a top secret drone program, which most certainly there has to be? It probably has to be. There's probably some sort of radical propulsion system that they devised.

02:30:00 Speaker_06
They probably made some breakthroughs they haven't been forthcoming about because of national security risks. There's probably something really kooky that they could fly really fast through the sky, some kind of a drone.

02:30:10 Speaker_06
And that's probably what people are seeing. That's probably a lot of it. But then there's also this part of me that doesn't want to abandon the idea that if I was an intelligent species from another planet,

02:30:21 Speaker_06
And I saw that these territorial primates with thermonuclear weapons are advancing towards the creation of AI and ruining the planet while they're doing it, doing crazy shit to the ocean and poisoning streams and water supplies.

02:30:37 Speaker_06
I'd be like, let's keep an eye on these fucking freaks.

02:30:40 Speaker_06
I would most certainly say this is a, if this happens all throughout the universe, let's just imagine that this is the natural progression from single-celled organisms to super curious advanced life forms that eventually transform the world that they live in.

02:30:54 Speaker_06
If this is a natural progression, there's got to be planets that don't make it. There's probably a slew of them that get to 1945 and it turns out that both Germany, Japan, and

02:31:21 Speaker_06
We know that every now and then there's a massive supervolcano like what Yellowstone is, this caldera, that it's a continent killer. If it blows, there's no more United States. It stops being a thing. Most people on the planet die.

02:31:33 Speaker_06
We get down to a few hundred savages and we start from scratch. And that's inside the realm of possibility. That can absolutely happen. So, something has to get past all of these hurdles.

02:31:47 Speaker_06
And if I saw a planet that's real close, like us, I'm like, wow, they're going to not fuck this up. They have achieved this crazy apex where they're so far beyond everything else on their planet. They're almost there. They're almost there.

02:32:02 Speaker_06
Let's watch them. I would think of that too, but I just don't see any evidence. I bring in these whistleblowers. They all tell me, oh, I've seen it. It's incredible. One day it's going to be released. Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah.

02:32:15 Speaker_03
I don't see shit. I think it's best to assume Carl Sagan again, wasn't it when he said no one's coming to save us from ourselves?

02:32:22 Speaker_06
Let's just assume that we just definitely should assume that and then that's a that's a safe and That's an intelligent assumption. And also that's how you want your children to behave, right?

02:32:33 Speaker_06
You don't want to go save your children every time you know, like they're When they get older, they gotta go on their own, they gotta make it. They gotta figure it out on their own. If they don't, they're gonna be infants for the rest of their lives.

02:32:43 Speaker_06
And this might be one of the reasons why we don't get intervened. Why something doesn't come down and put a halt to us. Maybe they're just hoping we can figure this out through diplomacy.

02:32:52 Speaker_04
I don't think it's my first thing.

02:32:54 Speaker_06
Whatever they have, they're crossing. Yeah, whatever they have. I'm so fascinated by it. I want to believe everything. I'm such a sucker. Every time I see Bob Lazar talk, I want to believe it. I want to believe all of it.

02:33:07 Speaker_03
As I said, I wouldn't be surprised. I'd be relieved. I'd be relieved as well.

02:33:12 Speaker_06
Please help us.

02:33:14 Speaker_03
Yeah.

02:33:15 Speaker_06
But also do you think about the way we interact with primitive tribes? It's not good. It ruins them almost every time.

02:33:22 Speaker_06
Like there's this story that we were talking about recently where Starlink has been brought to some of these very remote tribes and they've been given cell phones and now the tribal leaders are complaining.

02:33:34 Speaker_02
As we talked about earlier.

02:33:35 Speaker_06
Yeah, these kids are on their phones all day in the fucking jungle like instead of like living this subsistence lifestyle They've been living for tens of thousands of years.

02:33:44 Speaker_06
Some of them are getting lazy and they're just sitting around and they're looking at you know videos Can't shout me that. Yeah, just looking at tick-tock arguing with people online trolling. Yeah

02:33:54 Speaker_06
Looking at memes and laughing, you know, we've ruined them and this is one of the reasons why I like places like North Sentinel Island It's like you're not supposed to visit them.

02:34:03 Speaker_06
You're supposed to leave them alone Yes, they are this very bizarre state of uncontacted and very primitive lifestyle that we can you know We can preserve which is also weird like shouldn't we help them?

02:34:16 Speaker_06
Like that's sort of weird to like they're human beings and they're living like people live thousands of years ago I don't want to live like that today, but but that's

02:34:23 Speaker_06
if i was an alien life form and i wasn't so you know cautious about the impact that i would go you guys got to stop this we're going to come down land on the white house lawn scare the shit out of all you you know take all your nuclear weapons away i wish somebody would do that to be honest would do it do you don't you think though that

02:34:44 Speaker_06
The real problem would be the structure of our society is based on this idea that we have to work together to sort out our problems.

02:34:52 Speaker_06
And if something came here that was like far superior in intelligence and its capabilities, we would sort of defer to that. That would be our space daddy now.

02:35:03 Speaker_06
And there are probably religions, probably some scam religions that get invented to try to, you know, contact and make peace with these overlords.

02:35:15 Speaker_03
How did we get here?

02:35:16 Speaker_06
But it's the idea like, OK, let's take a look. Let's pretend that we well, let's extrapolate. Let's imagine we do get to Mars. We set up bases on Mars. We do become

02:35:30 Speaker_06
We develop the technology that allows us to travel to other solar systems, and we do observe a civilization that is like the Bronze Age. And we stumble upon these people that have tools.

02:35:45 Speaker_06
figured out steel yet, but they've done some pretty interesting things, and they're clearly intelligent, and they figured out agriculture. We would be studying them, for sure, 100%.

02:35:54 Speaker_06
We would send word back to Earth, oh my God, we found these people that live like the Mongols did in 1200 AD. It would be fascinating. We would 100% be interested in it.

02:36:08 Speaker_02
And I think they would be interested in us. This is Star Trek.

02:36:12 Speaker_06
It is Star Trek. The Prime Directive. The thing is, yeah, the Prime Directive. Do no harm, right? Isn't that what it is?

02:36:20 Speaker_03
Well, don't intervene at all.

02:36:21 Speaker_06
Don't intervene at all, isn't it? Yeah. I mean, I think that's what they would do. I think we would hope that they would prevent. But if that's the case, why didn't they prevent Hiroshima and Nagasaki?

02:36:33 Speaker_06
Why didn't, why do they let us just practice blowing things up in the Nevada desert for like 30 years?

02:36:40 Speaker_03
I think you're absolutely right. I mean, the point is, I think there's nobody there.

02:36:44 Speaker_06
That's terrifying. The terrifying idea is that we're the only ones in the whole thing and that intelligent life is so bizarre and such a rare thing that happens in only the perfect of circumstances.

02:36:58 Speaker_03
That would be my baseline view.

02:37:01 Speaker_06
But if the universe is so big, wouldn't every single potential situation happen infinite?

02:37:09 Speaker_03
If it's infinite? I mean, we don't know if it's infinite. We have the observable universe. I think the current number is something like 2 trillion galaxies, depending on how many smaller ones there are.

02:37:21 Speaker_06
So wouldn't you think that just out of 2 trillion galaxies, there's probably pretty good odds that something would reach some sort of a Goldilocks state in terms of where the planet exists in relationship to the star?

02:37:36 Speaker_03
Yeah, but we're talking the distance between the galaxies is, you know, the Andromeda galaxy is two million light years away, which is the largest and our nearest large neighbor.

02:37:48 Speaker_03
So I think, when I think about this, I tend to confine it to our galaxy because I can't conceive of travel between galaxies. Too crazy. I think it's too far. For now. Although it is true that the laws of physics do not prevent that.

02:38:07 Speaker_03
I teach relativity at Manchester University, the first years, the 18-year-olds.

02:38:13 Speaker_03
The first thing we do in special relativity is talk about the fact that if you travel close to the speed of light, so if you had a spacecraft traveling close to the speed of light, then distances shrink from your perspective.

02:38:27 Speaker_03
So, and the one number I always have in my mind is that the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, the protons go around the ring, which is 27 kilometers in circumference, and they go around at 99.99999% the speed of light. So close to the speed of light.

02:38:45 Speaker_03
At that speed, distances shrink by a factor of 7,000. And so that ring is something like four meters in diameter to the protons.

02:38:58 Speaker_03
So according to laws of physics, if you can build a spacecraft that goes very close to the speed of light, you can shrink the distance to the Andromeda galaxy, and therefore the time it takes to get there, by an arbitrary amount, actually.

02:39:14 Speaker_03
The closer you get to the speed of light, the more you can shrink it. And so you can make those two million light years, you could traverse across that distance in principle in a minute, according to physics. However, the downside

02:39:31 Speaker_03
is that you couldn't come back. If you came back to the Earth at that speed to tell everybody what you'd found, at least four million years would have passed on the Earth. Oh, boy. So there's kind of a downside to it.

02:39:47 Speaker_03
We could, in principle, explore the galaxy and beyond. But getting to chat to everybody about what you found is forbidden by the structure of the universe. It's just the way that relativity works. That really is essentially a time machine.

02:40:03 Speaker_03
Well, it's a time machine in the sense that we could go arbitrarily far into the future by flying around in a rocket very close to the speed of light.

02:40:14 Speaker_03
So we could come back a million years in the future and look at the Earth and find out what had happened. You can't go back as far as we can tell. So you can't get back to your, you can't build a time machine to go backwards.

02:40:27 Speaker_03
So these are time machines. The world is built so that a time machine A way to think about it, the way that we teach it in undergraduate physics is that, so in Einstein's theory, there are events, which are things that happen in space-time.

02:40:44 Speaker_03
So that would be an event. It's something that happens. Our conversation now is a thing that happens, space-time. And what Einstein's theory tells you is it's about the relationship between events. So let's say that we wanted to come back here tomorrow.

02:40:59 Speaker_03
That would be another event. We meet again tomorrow. And you can see how much time has passed between those events. In Einstein's theory, the amount of time that has passed is the length of the path you take over space-time between the events.

02:41:16 Speaker_03
So it's just like saying, in a sense, what's the distance between Austin and Dallas, right? And you'd say, okay, well, it depends what route you go.

02:41:23 Speaker_03
Well, what's interesting in Einstein's theory, the only complication is the length of the path you take between events, is the time measured by a clock that's carried along that path.

02:41:36 Speaker_03
So that's how much, if you're carrying your watch with you and you go between here and tomorrow, you go this way, you go off and maybe you fly to Dallas and back or something and then come back again, there's a particular length.

02:41:48 Speaker_03
Someone else can take a different path, obviously, and so a different amount of time will pass for them. between those two things that happen. Just because of that one fact. A very infinitely small but measurable amount of time. It's a tiny amount.

02:42:04 Speaker_03
Unless you travel, someone goes close to the speed of light, or someone goes near a black hole or something where the space-time is all distorted, then you can get big effects. But it's still completely measurable.

02:42:16 Speaker_03
I mean, they are quite big effects, these, in the sense that for the satellite navigation system, for example, GPS, The clocks on the satellites tick at a different rate to the clocks on the ground. And it's quite a big effect.

02:42:30 Speaker_03
I think for memory, it's something like over 30,000 nanoseconds per day difference because they're in a weaker gravitational field and they're moving and all sorts of things. It's the same thing. But 30,000 nanoseconds.

02:42:45 Speaker_03
Light travels one foot per nanosecond, which is great. I always say that God used imperial units because it's 30.8 centimeters. It's one foot, right? It's good. It's one foot per nanosecond. So that's 30,000 feet.

02:42:59 Speaker_03
of position measurement if you drift your clock out by 30,000 nanoseconds. So it wouldn't work. So it's a big effect for when you start using time to measure distance, which is what we do in satellite navigation, GPS. So we have to correct.

02:43:15 Speaker_03
So the clocks have to be corrected for that effect. So it's an effect that we can easily measure with atomic clocks. But it doesn't make much difference to us as humans.

02:43:25 Speaker_03
But just the point is that the laws of nature would allow you to do it if you could go close to the speed of light. By the way, the last thing I'll say is the limiting factor. You might say, what happens if you go really close to the speed of light?

02:43:38 Speaker_03
What happens if you go at the speed of light? Well, special relativity, Einstein's theory, is built such that the distance between any two events in the universe along the path of the beam of light between the events is zero. No time at all.

02:43:55 Speaker_03
So that's the way that Einstein's theory is built. So he asked the question when he was younger, famously, what would the universe look like if I travelled alongside a beam of light? And the answer is that you wouldn't perceive any time. You can't.

02:44:12 Speaker_03
The last thing I'll say is that if you've got any mass at all, you can't do that. You can't go at the speed of light. So according to our model, which is a good model and it seems to work, but if you've got no mass, you go at the speed of light.

02:44:24 Speaker_03
So if you're a photon, you go at the speed of light and no time.

02:44:31 Speaker_06
What are your thoughts on the possibility of some sort of a novel propulsion system that doesn't move things at speed, but instead brings things together?

02:44:42 Speaker_03
Yeah, that's called the, I can never pronounce it, it's the Albuquerque, what's it called, the drive unit. So you can, Einstein's general theory of relativity,

02:44:53 Speaker_03
General relativity is this theory of gravity and it's a theory where space and time are distorted by things, anything in the universe, stars and planets. So that's what gravity is. It's the distortion of space and time by mass and energy.

02:45:10 Speaker_03
It's Einstein's theory. and it's been done, you can develop things where you say, well, if we could make this geometry of space and time, if we could distort it in this way, then indeed you can build a warp drive.

02:45:28 Speaker_03
But it always turns out, as far as we can tell, The other question is, but what kind of stuff would you need? What kind of matter or energy or field, whatever it is, what kind of thing would you need to make that geometry?

02:45:42 Speaker_03
And it always turns out that those things don't appear to exist. So these particular kinds of matter and energy, that if you had them, you'd be able to do that with space and time. We don't think you can have them. And so it's kind of a bummer, right?

02:46:00 Speaker_06
It's impossible that we don't have them here, but that in different planetary systems, different environments, that these elements could exist.

02:46:12 Speaker_03
It's not going to be elements. It's going to be kind of some kind of quantum field, some kind of energy or something. And so you can sort of try to speculate. But Stephen Hawking wrote a very famous paper called the Chronology Protection Conjecture.

02:46:28 Speaker_03
So conjecture is important. It's a guess, not proved. where he said that whatever the ultimate laws of physics are, we don't have them at the moment, string theory, whatever it is, then they will be such that you can't do this.

02:46:41 Speaker_03
Because chronology protection means protect the present from the future. So in other words, you can't build a time machine that goes back in time.

02:46:54 Speaker_03
But because Einstein's theory allowed you to imagine such a thing, even though you might not be able to build it, it's not been proven beyond doubt that you can't somehow make these kinds of quantum fields or whatever it is that you need to make wormholes, for example, stable wormholes you can go through.

02:47:13 Speaker_03
And so it's not been proven. So it's just, it's suspected that that's going to be the case.

02:47:18 Speaker_03
By the way, the final thing, this will be very neat because it goes right back to what I said at the start, that one of the pictures of how, I said there was this thing, the black hole information paradox, and we thought Stephen's calculation was that no information comes out, we now think it comes out.

02:47:34 Speaker_03
So we now think that black holes do not destroy information. We're pretty sure. So it's been proven mathematically to most people's satisfaction that the information ends up out again.

02:47:45 Speaker_03
So if you went into a black hole, the information would be out in that Hawking radiation that could reconstruct you, but only in the sense that if a nuclear bomb landed on us now, then in principle the information would be still there in the future and we could be reconstructed, right?

02:48:00 Speaker_03
But it's still in principle there. And then, but the question is, how does it get out? How is it getting out? How is the information that is you ending up outside again?

02:48:11 Speaker_03
And it's not, the physical picture is not really understood, but the link is that one of the pictures that people are beginning to suggest, to have, is that there is some kind of wormholes, in a sense, some kind of wormhole that connects the inside of the black hole to the outside.

02:48:30 Speaker_03
And so a picture is that your atoms and everything, your bits, get scrambled up and go basically through the wormholes and come out again.

02:48:40 Speaker_03
But they're funny kind of wormholes, so people don't really understand this, but mathematically it looks like maybe. So it looks like maybe there's some role for wormholes. these things, the science fiction things, after a fashion.

02:48:54 Speaker_03
There's some role for it in the way the universe works. So it's really cool. The last thing I'll say is there's a thing called ER equals EPR. So EPR was the spooky action at a distance. So we may have talked about that before.

02:49:10 Speaker_03
In quantum mechanics, there's this entanglement thing where something can be separated by a million light years. But if you do something to it, it seems like this thing responds, right? Not in a way that you can transmit information, but it responds.

02:49:25 Speaker_03
So entanglement. There's a picture of that. So that's Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, EPR, where they wrote a paper on this saying, we don't like this. There must be something wrong with quantum mechanics. We don't think there is now.

02:49:37 Speaker_03
This is the basis of quantum computers. So we build things that rely on this effect. ER is Einstein-Rosen, which is Einstein-Rosen bridge, which is wormhole. So they also published a paper about wormholes, Einstein and Rosen, in the 30s.

02:49:52 Speaker_03
And so the idea is that you could picture that somehow as being a kind of wormhole that connects the entangled particles. So that's how this entanglement works. Another description of quantum entanglement is a wormhole kind of geometry.

02:50:09 Speaker_03
And this is part of the cutting edge of research into black holes, but also the structure of space and time and quantum entanglement and how quantum entanglement might produce space and time. And it's related to the way that quantum computers work.

02:50:25 Speaker_03
So it's become a really hot topic because people are trying to build quantum computers and program quantum computers. And these are the kind of problems you have to face about quantum entanglement and how you maintain it and what it means.

02:50:38 Speaker_03
And there was a paper. recently, which is quite a controversial paper, but that I think was the Google quantum computer, which is one of the best ones. And it's not using it as a computer.

02:50:49 Speaker_03
It's using it just as these qubits, these little quantum systems that are kind of very stable, that are the basis of quantum computing.

02:50:57 Speaker_03
And it's using those qubits and setting them up in such a way that something that looks like a kind of a wormhole is created in the quantum computer. It's kind of a one-dimensional wormhole and it's a bit kind of technical and everything.

02:51:12 Speaker_03
But it looks like it might be the first hint of how you build space from qubits. And so that paper was published There it is. That's it. A holographic wormhole. It's important to say that wormhole is what's called a hologram.

02:51:30 Speaker_03
It's not really in our universe. It's kind of a different thing. Because that's the last thing I'll say because I've got to blow your mind because your mind looks... These theories.

02:51:41 Speaker_03
The hologram thing is quite well established now, and it's coming from a thing that you may have talked about with other people on the show, the ADS-CFT conjecture, the great physical Maldacena.

02:51:53 Speaker_03
So the idea is that you can have a quantum theory living on a boundary. So you could imagine, picture a sphere with a quantum theory living on the surface.

02:52:04 Speaker_03
And that quantum, there's a completely equivalent description of whatever's going on, the physics, in the interior of the sphere. So it's almost as if the interior of the space is a hologram of the theory that lives on the surface.

02:52:19 Speaker_03
And it's kind of, not accepted, but one, many physicists think our universe is like that.

02:52:27 Speaker_03
So what we're saying is that we're having this conversation now and there's an equivalent description of this somehow in a theory that does not contain space and time.

02:52:39 Speaker_03
There's a completely equivalent description that lives in fewer dimensions on a surface somehow that's surrounding us and it's really woolly and hand wavy because we don't fully know what it means but it would mean that we're holograms.

02:52:54 Speaker_03
So this is a hologram of this other dual theory. That's what that thing was, the holographic wormhole thing. So it's all very, the beginnings of this work.

02:53:06 Speaker_03
But that's an example of how it could become an experimental science because quantum computers now exist. And they allow you to do those experiments, to try to build filaments.

02:53:19 Speaker_03
It's almost like a filament of space, a holographic filament of space that you're building from these qubits. And by the way, that word is a bit weird. It's just something like an electron.

02:53:31 Speaker_03
They're more complicated, but an electron would be an example of one. So it's a physical thing that we have in the lab. that is a quantum system, that's a quantum bit.

02:53:40 Speaker_03
So you build it in the different ways of building them, and that's what a quantum computer is. But it's amazing, isn't it, that we're beginning to use those things not for computing yet, because they're really hard to program.

02:53:51 Speaker_03
But physicists have gone, this is great, because Google and Microsoft have spent billions of dollars building these things because they want to build these computers. But they're perfect laboratories for quantum mechanics.

02:54:04 Speaker_03
So you can do abstract research into quantum mechanics on them, which I find fascinating.

02:54:10 Speaker_06
That's actually more fascinating than using them to crack everybody's codes.

02:54:14 Speaker_03
Yeah, it's kind of factoring large numbers. It's kind of boring. But building wormholes, which is, and I caution, it's a complicated thing. But it looks like the beginnings of a laboratory to build structures like that. That's so fascinating.

02:54:32 Speaker_06
Before you leave, I have to ask you this because I thought about this while you're talking. You might be the only person that could explain this to us.

02:54:38 Speaker_06
We were looking at this image of these quantum entangled photons and the image was in the shape of a yin yang. We couldn't understand what we're seeing. Right.

02:54:50 Speaker_06
I couldn't understand if they did this on purpose to make it the shape of a yin-yang and it's just the representation of these quantum entangled photons or if that is what quantum entangled photons actually look like in a shape.

02:55:06 Speaker_03
So it's visualized to entangled particles in real time.

02:55:11 Speaker_06
It says making them appear as a stunning quantum yin-yang symbol.

02:55:16 Speaker_03
Yeah, I mean, I hadn't seen that, but it looks to me like it's another example of trying to visualize. Entanglement looks fundamental. Let me put it that way.

02:55:32 Speaker_03
So it does look as if this idea of entanglement, which is, as I said, perhaps producing space and time itself.

02:55:42 Speaker_03
But also is the way that quantum computers work and the way that you, we didn't talk about this, but the way that you can, one way of picturing what this does is allow you access to multiple universes.

02:55:55 Speaker_03
It's the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. You mentioned it, breaking people's encryption codes, right? What are you actually doing there? You've got an algorithm, you're running a quantum computer. And how does it factor these?

02:56:09 Speaker_03
What it's doing is finding the prime numbers that you multiply together to make a very big number. So it's very easy to multiply two big numbers together to get a really big number. It's very hard to take a very big number and factor it.

02:56:24 Speaker_03
So find out what the numbers were that got multiplied together to make it. That takes much longer than the current age of the universe for big numbers with any conceivable classical computer.

02:56:35 Speaker_03
But the quantum computer can do it in a second or something.

02:56:41 Speaker_03
And the explanation for how it's doing it, a picture, which many people in the field, not everyone, many people would say is the correct, is what it's doing is the calculations in multiple universes.

02:56:56 Speaker_03
So it's accessing the fact that actually there's an interpretation of quantum mechanics called the Many Worlds Interpretation, where you have to imagine these, you know, infinite, pretty much, sea of universes.

02:57:08 Speaker_03
And the computer kind of goes... And does the calculation in parallel, and then brings them back together again at the end.

02:57:16 Speaker_03
And I mentioned David Deutsch earlier, who's a fascinating writer in this field, and the instigator of many of these algorithms. early on. He would say that. He would say, this is what is happening. There is no other explanation.

02:57:30 Speaker_03
How do you explain the fact that this quantum computer can do something that no classical computer can ever do? How do you explain it? Where is it doing the math? And he would say, he would say, it's doing it in the multiple universes.

02:57:47 Speaker_05
I still don't understand the yin-yang symbol.

02:57:50 Speaker_03
Well, I don't fully understand that. I feel so much better.

02:57:53 Speaker_06
Well, I've never seen it. And I also now don't understand, too, because it says that by capturing the resulting image.

02:58:01 Speaker_06
By capturing the resulting image with a nanosecond precise camera, the researchers teased apart the interference pattern they received, revealing a stunning yin-yang image of the two entangled photons.

02:58:11 Speaker_06
So that sounds like that's what it actually looks like.

02:58:13 Speaker_03
It is a photograph of, in a real sense, that the photons are arriving and you're detecting them. So it's a photograph.

02:58:20 Speaker_06
So that's what it actually looks like.

02:58:22 Speaker_03
If you think about what, I think what must be happening is you're getting these photons. It is true to say that, again, this many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics would be that these entangled photons

02:58:33 Speaker_03
If you send them on a path, then they, going by the way back to Feynman, if you calculate, the way you calculate how a photon goes from A to B, or an electron, whatever it is, it just formally, is you allow it to take all possible paths.

02:58:50 Speaker_03
That's one way of calculating the probability it will go from one place to another. And when you get entanglement, it gets more complicated, but you're essentially, you are mathematically saying, I allow it to go on all paths.

02:59:02 Speaker_03
And so really there you're seeing what an interference pattern is, is you're seeing the result of the fact that these particles can go on all loads of paths and interfere with each other and make a pattern you can see.

02:59:15 Speaker_03
And I think that's what that is.

02:59:16 Speaker_06
But how crazy is it that that pattern is an ancient symbol?

02:59:21 Speaker_03
It is beautiful, isn't it?

02:59:22 Speaker_06
It's unbelievably beautiful.

02:59:23 Speaker_02
It's a beautiful thing.

02:59:24 Speaker_06
Brian, thank you so much. What a great conversation. I really, really enjoyed it. Please tell people how they can find you. I know you're doing live performances.

02:59:34 Speaker_03
I'm going to do some. Yeah, I've been doing this tour for a long time now, actually. I ended up doing it for about two and a half years, and it's changed a lot. We've done it to over 400,000 people, I was told the other day, around the world.

02:59:46 Speaker_03
And I thought just to finish it, because I want to finish it and write another one, I'd come back to the U.S. We did a few in the U.S., but so coming back in April and May and doing these relatively smallish shows. I saw the one you did years ago.

02:59:58 Speaker_03
That was ages ago, wasn't it? Yeah. So this is, you know, it explores many of these questions, actually, particularly black holes. And just to round it off, I'm doing a few. So if you go and look on the web, you'll find

03:00:10 Speaker_03
You know, we're doing some LA, New York, Chicago, around, I hope we're doing Austin, actually. I hope you do, too.

03:00:14 Speaker_02
I want to come see. Maybe I will insist. Yeah, please.

03:00:16 Speaker_03
If he's not in there, that we come and do Austin. Please come. And then, you know, yeah. So that's what I'm up to.

03:00:22 Speaker_06
Well, thank you very much, Brian. I really appreciate what you do. It means a lot to me. Thank you. Thank you very much. Thanks for coming in. All right. Bye, everybody. This episode of the Joe Rogan Experience is brought to you by Call of Duty.

03:00:46 Speaker_06
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03:00:59 Speaker_01
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03:01:10 Speaker_01
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03:01:26 Speaker_01
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03:01:42 Speaker_06
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